RARE 1819 Document Signed Hodijah Baylies - George Washington Aide Rev war

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Seller: dalebooks ✉️ (8,797) 100%, Location: Rochester, New York, US, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 304744447294 RARE 1819 Document Signed Hodijah Baylies - George Washington Aide Rev war.
RARE Early American Document
 
 
 
Signed by
Hodijah Baylies - Aid de Camp to George Washington 
 
1819
 

For offer, a nice old piece of ephemera! Fresh from a prominent estate. Never offered on the market until now. Vintage, Old, Original, Antique, NOT a Reproduction - Guaranteed !!

Signed H. Baylies, who was an important figure in the Revolutionary War. Baylies entered the continental army the same year as his graduation from Harvard in 1777 (1). He was soon appointed as an aide-de-camp for General Benjamin Lincoln (he later married his daughter, Elizabeth) and was thereafter part of many major battles of the Revolution. At the Siege of Charleston, General Lincoln surrendered in 1780 and Major Baylies was taken as a prisoner of war. After he rejoined the army, Major Baylies was part of the capture of Yorktown; his commander received the sword of Lord Cornwallis during the surrender. On May 3rd, 1782, Major Baylies was appointed aide-de-camp to General George Washington . He retained his position with General Washington until the end of the war and then stayed with the general at Mt. Vernon for a short period. There are letters preserved between Washington and Baylies at the National Archive / Library of Congress.

Document signed by Baylies as Judge for Bristol County, Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 1818. Also has a autograph manuscript statement signed on back by a Justice of the Peace, Thomas Peck. Document for Josiah Barney. In good to very good condition. Fold mark.  Please see photos. If you collect 18th / 19th century Americana history,  American documents, United States of America, etc. this is a treasure you will not see again! Add this to your image or paper / ephemera collection. Important genealogy research importance too. Combine shipping on multiple bid wins! 2914

Born in Uxbridge, Massachusetts, September 15th, 1756, Hodijah Baylies was a Harvard graduate that went on to become an important player in the Revolutionary War. He was a first lieutenant as well as a major and Aide de Camp for General Benjamin Lincoln and later, George Washington (5). After the war, Major Baylies started a family and held various civil positions in Bristol County, Massachusetts, including Judge of Probate. He was reportedly one of the most handsome men of the Continental Army; he also carried himself well with good manners About Judge Hodijah Baylies The Grave Of Judge (Major then promoted by General Washington to Lt. Colonel) Hodijah Baylies remains a mystery. Many Baylies are interred at Prospect Hill Cemetery including his father. But no listing for Hodijah. Walter G. Ashworth 5th Great Nephew. Seems he is buried in the Unitarian Church Cemetery Dighton, Bristol County, Mass. USA • No gave stone available on their website. In 1785, he took his family to Dighton, Massachusetts and took up various civil positions of prominence and became a member of multiple patriotic societies . Major Baylies held the title of collector of customs from 1789 to 1809. In 1810, he was appointed the Judge of Probate in Bristol County until 1834. Thereafter, he was known as Judge Baylies. The house he owned was once a tavern that he, himself, remodeled and added onto to make it a home. He and his wife raised their four children on a farm of nearly two hundred acres He was a reputable man known for his looks, grace, and manners. His intellect and conversation skills were held in high regard and he was noted as an interesting and lively person . He was one of the most esteemed men in Bristol County. Walter G. Ashworth 5th Great Nephew. Baylies Patriots In 1777 he Graduated from Harvard College and almost immediately entered the army as a lieutenant. He was an Aid-de-Camp to General Benjamin Lincoln and General George Washington Hodijah was a Freemason and took his first degree at the Lodge of Saint An­drew, Boston, in 1777. Colonel Hodijah Baylies, Patriot, Aide de camp to Gen. George Washington, 1782 to 1783. Aide-de-Camp (from 1777 to 1782) to Major General Benjamin Lincoln and was at Yorktown. Lt. Frederick Baylies, Hodijah Baylies brother marched on the Rhode Island Alarm, 1776, in Capt. Edward C. Blake's company, Col. George Williams' Bristol County regiment. In 1777 he served on a secret expedition. He was born in Uxbridge; died in Sturbridge, Mass. After the British seized control of New York City in autumn 1776, Washington directed the activities of numerous spies there. Of particular note was the Culper spy ring, which comprised about 20 people. This network, established in the summer of 1778, was managed by Major Benjamin Tallmadge of the 2nd Connecticut Light Dragoons, who operated from an outpost on the Hudson River above the city. The Culper ring was the most professional of Washington's agent networks. It used code names, secret writing, enciphered communications, couriers, dead drops, signal sites, and specific collection requirements. Judge Hodijah Baylies In 1777 he Graduated from Harvard College and almost immediately entered the army as a lieutenant. He was an Aid to General Benjamin Lincoln. Hodijah was a Freemason and took his first degree at the Lodge of Saint An­drew, Boston, in 1777. During the Rev. War he was Maj. Hodijah Baylies, upon being appointed as aide-de-camp to General George Washington 1782-1783. He was promoted to Lt. Colonel. He was present at the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. from a book titled "People & Events of the American Revolution" by Dupuy/Hammerman. R.R. Bowker Company, 1974. pg.288. Major Hodijah Baylies, Patriot, Aide-de-Camp to Major General Benjamin Lincoln at Yorktown. INTERESTING HISTORICAL NOTE: General Cornwallis did not attend the surrender ceremony (Oct 19,1781). Saying that he did not feel well (he basically just lost the war for all intents and purposes), Cornwallis sent a subordinate, General O'Hara. O'Hara tried to surrender to the commander of the French forces, Comte de Rochambeau. De Rochambeau directed the British officer to General Washington, who in turn directed O'Hara to surrender to Washington's subordinate, Major General Benjamin Lincoln. General Lincoln directed O'Hara to hand the sword to Major Hodijah Baylies then to Gen. Lincoln. A painting of this event still hangs in the North Dighton Church in Mass. Later he became Colonel Baylies Aid de Camp to General Washington then Judge Baylies and married Gen. Lincoln's daughter.''' -------------------------------------------------- Note, George Washington went through 36 Aide de Camps in five years. That is over seven a year perod. Hodijah Baylies, the 37th, was his Aide for the final two years and after the war he lived at Mount Vernon for over year helping George Washington with documenting all the personal who served in the War. Every soldier that served in the Army received a pension. When Hodijah Baylies was appointed as General Washington's aid he was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel His appointment was dated May 3, 1782 REf: Sons of the American Revolution: New York State, 1893-94 page 60 item #4014 George Washington's Military Family In the 18th century the expression used to describe the staff of a general officer was "his family". By examining his choice of family members is one of the best methods of judging a general's administrative ability. The men chosen by General George Washington is a study in excellence. From surviving accounts, being a member of George Washington's family was exhausting. It required the Aides-de-Camp to get up before sunrise and work until the late hours of the night. Army exists because of paperwork! In the 18th century, that meant quill and paper. There were two means of communication available to Washington, person-to-person conversation and handwritten letters, laboriously prepared, always by quill, and often by the inadequate light of a flickering candle. The method of preparing and preserving written communications is a story in itself. Generally a subject was discussed between the General and his Aide de-Camp, a draft letter or order was prepared, corrected and approved by the General, then rewritten in final form for his signature. A copy was then written in the "Letter Book", along with the letter it referred to, or the answer to the General's letter was inserted. If the letter was important enough, it was personally delivered by one of the Aides-de-Camp. These duties were constant, whether the army was encamped, or on the march. In the campaigns that followed he took part in much hard fighting at Savannah, Charleston, and elsewhere, acquitting himself creditably in whatever situation he was placed. He was in the city of Charleston during the memorable siege by the British, and when Lincoln finally surrendered to Clinton on the 12th of May, 1780, he was included among the prisoners of war. He rejoined the army as soon as his exchange was effected ; was present at the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, and having been selected by Washington as one of his aids, remained in this position until the end of the war. He stayed for some time (over a year) with Washington at Mount Vernon after peace was concluded, receiving a brevet as major in the army. He returned to the North in 1784, and married Elizabeth Lincoln, daughter of Gen. Lincoln, who resided in Hingham, in this State. After residing for a time in Hingham he removed to Taunton, and engaged in business as a manufacturer of iron, the works being at Westville. The anchor for the frigate "Constitution" were made at the Baylies Forge The duties of the Aides-de-Camp were often dangerous. On the field of battle, they galloped about the battlefield delivering the General’s orders or observing the action for him. At the Battle of Monmouth, in 1778, three Aides-de-Camp, Alexander Hamilton, John Fitzgerald, and John Laurens were all wounded. On more than one occasion the Aides-de-Camp had to gallop through a hail of musket balls to force the utterly fearless Washington to retire to safety. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- After the end of the American Revolution, Hodijah, youngest son of Nicholas and a distinguished veteran of the war, took over control of the iron works. During this time, among other large contracts, he made the anchor for the frigate USS Constitution in 1797. This was considered a great event in iron manufacture at the time. It required ten yoke of oxen to transport the anchor to tidewater at Dighton, to be taken on board Old Ironsides at Boston.[11] Hodijah continued in the iron business until 1810, when he received the appointment of judge of probate, which office he held twenty four years. He disposed of the privilege and old mills to John West in 1809, who built the paper mill on the opposite side of the river. West, who had been a merchant in Boston, was the first paper manufacturer in the Old Colony. In 1823-24, West associated with Crocker & Richmond built a cotton mill on the site of the old iron works. He continued as agent of the cotton and paper mills until the time of his death in 1827. The cotton mill was then managed by Crocker & Richmond until the time of their suspension in 1837. It later became part of Whittenton Mills, operating as Westville Spinning Mill. In 1930, a bronze plaque was placed near the spot once occupied by the Baylies Iron Works Hartford Convention Delegates to the Hartford Convention: Hodijah Baylies was an officer in the Continental army, in which he served efficiently. He was for many years judge of probate in his county, and was distinguished for sound understanding, fine talents, and unimpeachable integrity. His ancestors resided in the parish of Alvechurch, county of Worcester,England. Maj. Baylies was said to have been one of the handsomest men in the army. His deportment, while showing his military training, was yet easy and graceful, and his manners were polished and engaging. While he was in the army, Robert Treat Paine, the jurist and statesman, who knew him well, said to his mother, "Your son, madame, has all the elegance of the British officers, without any of their vices." The vigor of his mental faculties was sustained to the last. " His perceptions," says a writer in an obituary notice in a New Bedford paper, " were clear and acute. His conversation, marked by strong sense, abounding with anecdotes and interesting reminiscences of the Revolution, exhibited, almost to the last days of his life, the liveliness of youth, without any of the garrulity of age, always tasteful, animated, and correct." Son of Maj. Nicholas Baylies, Nathaniel E. Smith's mother was Hannah Baylies. On the Gravestone of Hannah Baylies Smith, Hodijah Baylies being her great uncle Her Grand father Lt. Fredrick Baylies. It reads: "HANNAH E. BAYLIES wife of Nathaniel M. Smth" She is buried in Southbridge Ma. in the Oak Ridge Cemetery. She was an incredible woman. Walter G. Ashworth, Judge Hodijah Baylies, Patriot, is my fifth Great Uncle. His brother, Lt. Fredrick Baylies is my 4th Great Grand Father. Judge Hodijah Baylies, son of Nicholas and Elizabeth (Parks) Baylies, was born at Taunton, Massachusetts, September 17, 1756, died at Dighton, April 26, 1843. He was graduated from Harvard College with the degree of Bachelor of Arts in 1777, and in the same year enlisted in a company. Then he was appointed aide-de-camp to General Benjamin Lincoln, one of the most famous soldiers of the Revolutionary War, and served with him at the siege of Charleston and the capture of Yorktown. He was appointed aide-de-camp to General George Washington, May 3, 1782. He settled at Dighton about the year 1785. He occupied various civil positions of prominence, including that of collector of the port of Dighton, to which he was appointed August 4, 1789, and from February 20, 1810, to December 20, 1834, was judge of probate in Bristol County. He was a member of the Society of the Cincinnati and several other patriotic societies. Judge Baylies married, in 1784, Elizabeth, daughter of General Benjamin Lincoln, of Hingham, who was delegated to receive the sword of Cornwallis at the battle of Yorktown. General Lincoln's family were among the earliest settlers of new England. The anchor on the USS Constitution, now in Boston Harbor was manufactured by the "Baylies Iron Works". Dighton Community Church Its reputation as one of the most beautiful colonial churches in New England is due to the generosity of Mrs. Walter C. Baylies who in 1930 renovated it in honor of her husband’s ancestors who had worshiped there. As far as possible, the features of the original building were restored. The plaque in the church vestibule reads: “Restored in A.D. 1930 by Charlotte Upham Baylies Wife of Walter Cabot Baylies Great grandson of Major Hodijah Baylies Who was a member of this Church and Aid-de-camp to General Washington during the Revolution.” He was a Member of the "Society of the Cincinnati" The Society of the Cincinnati is a historical, hereditary lineage organization with branches in the United States and France, founded in 1783 to preserve the ideals and fellowship of the officers of the Continental Army who served in the American Revolutionary War. The city of Cincinnati, Ohio, then a small village, shares its name with the Society. Now in its third century, the Society promotes public interest in the American Revolution through its library and museum collections, exhibitions, programs, publications, and other activities. It is the oldest lineage society in North America. From a history :   Maj. Hodijah Baylies, aide-de-camp to Gen. Washington, was a citizen of this town for many years. Maj. Baylies was born in Uxbridge, Mass., Sept. 15, 1756. His father's name was Nicholas, and his mother before her marriage was Elizabeth Parks. His ancestors were Quakers, and resided in the parish of Alvechurch, county of Worcester, England. His grandfather, who was named Thomas, came over from England with his son Nicholas and a daughter named Esther in June, 1737. He returned to England the next year, but came back under a contract with one Richard Clarke, of Boston, as a clerk in an ironworks, bringing his wife and two daughters with him. Another son, Thomas, came over later, and for some years kept a store in Taunton, and was interested in the manufacture of iron. Nicholas, Maj. Baylies' father, settled in Uxbridge, but after the death of his brother Thomas, Jr., which occurred in 1756, he moved to Taunton, and was a large land-owner and manufacturer of iron in that place. Hodijah Baylies was the youngest of eight children. Two of his brothers, William and Thomas S., were residents of Dighton, and were prominent men in the town. They will be more particularly mentioned hereafter. Hodijah graduated at Harvard College in 1777, and almost immediately entered the army as a lieutenant, his first service being on the Hudson River. When Gen. Lincoln was appointed to the command of the Southern Department, Lieut. Baylies was selected by him as one of his aids. In the campaigns that followed he took part in much hard fighting at Savannah, Charleston, and elsewhere, acquitting himself creditably in whatever situation he was placed. He was in the city of Charleston during the memorable siege by the British, and when Lincoln finally surrendered to Clinton on the 12th of May, 1780, he was included among the prisoners of war. He rejoined the army as soon as his exchange was effected; was present at the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, and having been selected by Washington as one of his aids, remained in this position until the end of the war. He stayed for some time with Washington at Mount Vernon after peace was concluded, receiving a brevet as major in the army. He returned to the North in 1784, and married Elizabeth Lincoln, daughter of Gen. Lincoln, who resided in Hingham, in this State. After residing for a time in Hingham he removed to Taunton, and engaged in business as a manufacturer of iron, the works being at Westville. The anchors for the frigate “Constitution” were made at the Baylies Forge. As soon as the Constitution of the United States had been ratified in 1789, Maj. Baylies was appointed collector of customs at Dighton, and at once removed to this town with his family. His father had died in Taunton two years before, in his ninetieth year. Maj. Baylies held the office of collector of customs until 1809.” In 1810 he was appointed judge of probate for the county of Bristol by Governor Gore, holding the office until 1834, when, at the age of seventy-eight, but in the full vigor of his mental faculties, he resigned. During his later years he was known as Judge Baylies, his military title being seldom used in connection with his name. He owned a fine farm in Dighton, of some two hundred acres in extent, including the woodland, some of which was heavily timbered." The house that he bought was a tavern during the Revolution, and was remodeled and enlarged by him. He had four children, William G. (who lived in Boston, and died in 1848), Edmund, Amelia, and Benjamin L. Edmund was born in 1787, at Hingham, engaged in commerce in Boston early in life, and made several voyages to Russia, acquiring a handsome fortune. He married a Miss Eliza Payson, and bought a residence in Taunton, not far from the Neck-of-Land Bridge.” Amelia married Dr. Alfred Wood, formerly of this town, but now residing in Taunton. Benjamin L. never married; he lived at the homestead until his death, a few years since. Judge Baylies died April 26, 1843, in the eightyseventh year of his age. His wife had died twenty years before, at the age of sixty-three. She is said to have had an excellent judgment and a kind heart, gifts that were inherited by her daughter Amelia. Maj. Baylies was said to have been one of the handsomest men in the army. His deportment, while showing his military training, was yet easy and graceful, and his manners were polished and engaging. While he was in the army, Robert Treat Paine, the jurist and statesman, who knew him well, owned and occupied by Rev. Nathaniel Fisher. Another of Dr. William Baylies' sons who was buried on the hill burying-ground was Samuel White Baylies, counselor-at-law, who was born June 22, 1774, and died Sept. 13, 1824. He practiced his profession in this town. Dr. Baylies' other distinguished son, Hon. Francis Baylies, of Taunton, author, statesman, and diplomatist, was born in Dighton, but was buried in Taunton. Dr. Baylies' daughter Elizabeth married Hon. Samuel Crocker, of Taunton. His wife was Bathsheba White, daughter of Hon. Samuel White, eminent as a lawyer. Not far from the Baylies monuments on the hill are those erected to the memory of Capt. John Clouston and his wife Hannah, who was a daughter of Capt. George Bowers. Capt. Clouston died in 1782, in his forty-second year. In the Revolutionary war he commanded the armed vessel “Freedom,” and was almost a second Paul Jones, being very successful in taking prizes in the British Channel, and thus, like Jones, bearding the English lion in his den. Capt. Clouston was a native of Scotland, and perhaps had inherited from his remote ancestors some of that animosity towards the English that prevailed among the Scottish clans in the olden time. Tiio MAs S. BAYLIES.—Thomas Sargeant Baylies, son of Nicholas and brother to Hodijah and Dr. William Baylies, was born Oct. 18, 1748. He lived at North Dighton for some years and was a farmer. He had besides some connection with the iron-works established by his father on the Three-Mile River, in Westville, Taunton. He married Bethia Godfrey, of Taunton, for his first wife. His second wife was Deborah Barnum. He had fourteen children, and he died Oct. 30, 1835. He was a man of considerable influence in town assairs, was representative in the General Court for three years, and was one of the selectmen for a number of years. George Baylies, son of Thomas S., was a merchant in Boston. Horatio married Rhoda Pratt, of Dighton. Henry marrical Deborah Walker, of this town. Charles married Keziah Round; he was a carpenter and resided at North Dighton. Alfred married Rebecca D. Sproat; he settled in Taunton and was a well-known physician there. Nicholas married Susan Stone and moved to Baltimore; he had fourteen children. John, son of Thomas S., married Mary Shaw; he resided in New Bedford. John's daughter Charlotte married Charles T. Congdon, Esq., one of the editorial staff of the New York Tribune. Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas S., married George B. Atwood, Esq., of Taunton. Hannah married John N. Washburn, and Eliza A. married James Sproat, Esq., formerly clerk of the courts. For some of the foregoing details in regard to the Baylies family I am indebted to Henry Baylies, Esq., counselor-at-law, of Boston. He is the son of Frederick Baylies, of Edgartown, and has for many years been collecting information, genealogical and histori * Commodore Tallot superintended the building of the “Constitution,” or “Old Ironsides,” as she was afterwards called. * The following are the names of the collectors who held the office after Maj. Baylies: Nathaniel Williams, from 1809 until his death in 1823; Hercules Cushman, from 1823 to 1825; Seth Williams, Esq., son of Nathaniel, from 1825 to 1820; Dr. William Wood, from 1829 to 1833; and Horatio Pratt, from 1833 to 1834. In the latter year Dr. P. W. Leland was appointed, and the office was removed to Fall River. While Dighton was the port of entry the custom-house was not, as at present, in a building costing half a million of dollars, but the books were kept at the residences of the collectors. * A large tract of this woodland was termed the Pine Swamp, and is still known by that name, although the timber was cut off a few years ago. It was probably the only large tract of the primeval forest in the town, and was an interesting spot to visit. The trees were of various sorts, chestnut, hemlock, and plue predominating. The swamp is evidently the bed of a filled-up lake. In some places a fifteen-feet pole can be thrust down without reaching hard pan. On the south side is a steep hill or ridge of gravel that was formerly covered with large chestnut- and hemlock-trees, under which there was always a twilight gloom even at midday. This ridge of gravel is probably a terminal moraine, piled up by the action of ice in the glacial period. Another smaller bit of the prinueval woods is found on the Baylies farm, near the river, and is now called Simmons' Grove, from Mr. C. N. Simmons, the present owner of the farm. This grove is noted for the clam-bakes that are aunually held there by the Methodist and Baptist Societies. The trees are chiefly white-oaks, and the grove gives one a good idea on a small scale of the appearance of the forest at the time when Winslow and Hopkins made their journey from Plymouth to Pokanoket, and found the trees “standing not thicke, but a man may well ride a horse among them.” It was on the northerly slope of the steep Pine Swamp Hill, however, that the solemn grandeur of the primeval forest impressed itself inost strongly ou the lover of nature. As in the land of the Lotus-Eaters, it seemed there to be always in the asternoon, and on dark cloudy days to be very late in the afternoon, “’t wixt the gloaming and the murk.” It was in some such lit of wild woodland scenery, no doubt, that Longsellow wrote these lines, “This is the forest primeval: the murmuring pines and the hemlocks,    Bearded with moss and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight    Stand, like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic,   Stand like harpers hour, with beards that rest on their bosons.”  George Washington (February 22, 1732[b] – December 14, 1799) was an American political leader, military general, statesman, and Founding Father who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Previously, he led Patriot forces to victory in the nation's War for Independence. He presided at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which established the U.S. Constitution and a federal government. Washington has been called the "Father of His Country" for his manifold leadership in the formative days of the new nation. Washington received his initial military training and command with the Virginia Regiment during the French and Indian War. He was later elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses and was named a delegate to the Continental Congress, where he was appointed Commanding General of the Continental Army. He commanded American forces, allied with France, in the defeat and surrender of the British during the Siege of Yorktown. He resigned his commission after the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Washington played a key role in adopting and ratifying the Constitution and was then twice elected president by the Electoral College. He implemented a strong, well-financed national government while remaining impartial in a fierce rivalry between cabinet members Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. During the French Revolution, he proclaimed a policy of neutrality while sanctioning the Jay Treaty. He set enduring precedents for the office of president, including the title "Mr. President", and his Farewell Address is widely regarded as a pre-eminent statement on republicanism. Washington owned slaves, and, in order to preserve national unity, he supported measures passed by Congress to protect slavery. He later became troubled with the institution of slavery and freed his slaves in a 1799 will. He endeavored to assimilate Native Americans into Anglo-American culture, but combated indigenous resistance during instances of violent conflict. He was a member of the Anglican Church and the Freemasons, and he urged broad religious freedom in his roles as general and president. Upon his death, he was eulogized as "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen". He has been memorialized by monuments, art, geographical locations, stamps, and currency, and many scholars and polls rank him among the greatest U.S. presidents. Early life (1732–1752) Further information: Washington family and British America The Washington family was a wealthy Virginia family which had made its fortune in land speculation.[10] Washington's great-grandfather John Washington immigrated in 1656 from Sulgrave, England, to the English colony of Virginia where he accumulated 5,000 acres (2,000 ha) of land, including Little Hunting Creek on the Potomac River. George Washington was born on February 22, 1732, at Popes Creek in Westmoreland County, Virginia,[11] and was the first of six children of Augustine and Mary Ball Washington.[12] His father was a justice of the peace and a prominent public figure who had three additional children from his first marriage to Jane Butler.[13] The family moved to Little Hunting Creek in 1735, then to Ferry Farm near Fredericksburg, Virginia, in 1738. When Augustine died in 1743, Washington inherited Ferry Farm and ten slaves; his older half-brother Lawrence inherited Little Hunting Creek and renamed it Mount Vernon.[14] Washington did not have the formal education his elder brothers received at Appleby Grammar School in England, but he did learn mathematics, trigonometry, and land surveying. He was a talented draftsman and map-maker. By early adulthood he was writing with "considerable force" and "precision";[15] however, his writing displayed little wit or humor. In pursuit of admiration, status, and power, he tended to attribute his shortcomings and failures to someone else's ineffectuality.[16] Washington often visited Mount Vernon and Belvoir, the plantation that belonged to Lawrence's father-in-law William Fairfax. Fairfax became Washington's patron and surrogate father, and Washington spent a month in 1748 with a team surveying Fairfax's Shenandoah Valley property.[17] He received a surveyor's license the following year from the College of William & Mary;[c] Fairfax appointed him surveyor of Culpeper County, Virginia, and he thus familiarized himself with the frontier region, resigning from the job in 1750. By 1752 he had bought almost 1,500 acres (600 ha) in the Valley and owned 2,315 acres (937 ha).[19] In 1751, Washington made his only trip abroad when he accompanied Lawrence to Barbados, hoping the climate would cure his brother's tuberculosis.[20] Washington contracted smallpox during that trip, which immunized him but left his face slightly scarred.[21] Lawrence died in 1752, and Washington leased Mount Vernon from his widow; he inherited it outright after her death in 1761.[22] Colonial military career (1752–1758) Lawrence Washington's service as adjutant general of the Virginia militia inspired George to seek a commission. Virginia's Lieutenant Governor Robert Dinwiddie appointed him as a major and as commander of one of the four militia districts. The British and French were competing for control of the Ohio Valley at the time, the British constructing forts along the Ohio River and the French doing likewise between the river and Lake Erie.[23] In October 1753, Dinwiddie appointed Washington as a special envoy to demand that the French vacate territory which the British had claimed.[d] Dinwiddie also appointed him to make peace with the Iroquois Confederacy and to gather intelligence about the French forces.[25] Washington met with Half-King Tanacharison and other Iroquois chiefs at Logstown to secure their promise of support against the French, and his party reached the Ohio River in November. They were intercepted by a French patrol and escorted to Fort Le Boeuf where Washington was received in a friendly manner. He delivered the British demand to vacate to French commander Saint-Pierre, but the French refused to leave. Saint-Pierre gave Washington his official answer in a sealed envelope after a few days' delay, and he gave Washington's party food and extra winter clothing for the trip back to Virginia.[26] Washington completed the precarious mission in 77 days in difficult winter conditions, achieving a measure of distinction when his report was published in Virginia and in London.[27] French and Indian War Main articles: French and Indian War, George Washington in the French and Indian War, and Seven Years' War In February 1754, Dinwiddie promoted Washington to lieutenant colonel and second-in-command of the 300-strong Virginia Regiment, with orders to confront French forces at the Forks of the Ohio.[28] Washington set out for the Forks with half the regiment in April but soon learned a French force of 1,000 had begun construction of Fort Duquesne there. In May, having set up a defensive position at Great Meadows, he learned that the French had made camp seven miles (11 km) away; he decided to take the offensive.[29] Night scene depicting Washington at center, standing among officers and Indians, around a lamp, holding a war council Lieutenant Colonel Washington holds night council at Fort Necessity The French detachment proved to be only about fifty men, so Washington advanced on May 28 with a small force of Virginians and Indian allies to ambush them.[30][e] What took place, known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen or the "Jumonville affair", was disputed, but French forces were killed outright with muskets and hatchets. French commander Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, who carried a diplomatic message for the British to evacuate, was killed. French forces found Jumonville and some of his men dead and scalped and assumed Washington was responsible.[32] Washington blamed his translator for not communicating the French intentions.[33] Dinwiddie congratulated Washington for his victory over the French.[34] This incident ignited the French and Indian War, which later became part of the larger Seven Years' War.[35] The full Virginia Regiment joined Washington at Fort Necessity the following month with news that he had been promoted to command of the regiment and to colonel upon the death of the regimental commander. The regiment was reinforced by an independent company of a hundred South Carolinians led by Captain James Mackay, whose royal commission outranked that of Washington, and a conflict of command ensued. On July 3, a French force attacked with 900 men, and the ensuing battle ended in Washington's surrender.[36] In the aftermath, Colonel James Innes took command of intercolonial forces, the Virginia Regiment was divided, and Washington was offered a captaincy which he refused, with resignation of his commission.[37] Washington on horseback in the middle of a battle scene with other soldiers Washington the Soldier: Lieutenant Colonel Washington on horseback during the Battle of the Monongahela (oil, Reǵnier, 1834) In 1755, Washington served voluntarily as an aide to General Edward Braddock, who led a British expedition to expel the French from Fort Duquesne and the Ohio Country.[38] On Washington's recommendation, Braddock split the army into one main column and a lightly equipped "flying column".[39] Suffering from a severe case of dysentery, Washington was left behind, and when he rejoined Braddock at Monongahela the French and their Indian allies ambushed the divided army. Two-thirds of the British force became casualties, including the mortally wounded Braddock. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage, Washington, still very ill, rallied the survivors and formed a rear guard, allowing the remnants of the force to disengage and retreat.[40] During the engagement he had two horses shot from under him, and his hat and coat were bullet-pierced.[41] His conduct under fire redeemed his reputation among critics of his command in the Battle of Fort Necessity,[42] but he was not included by the succeeding commander (Colonel Thomas Dunbar) in planning subsequent operations.[43] The Virginia Regiment was reconstituted in August 1755, and Dinwiddie appointed Washington its commander, again with the rank of colonel. Washington clashed over seniority almost immediately, this time with John Dagworthy, another captain of superior royal rank, who commanded a detachment of Marylanders at the regiment's headquarters in Fort Cumberland.[44] Washington, impatient for an offensive against Fort Duquesne, was convinced Braddock would have granted him a royal commission and pressed his case in February 1756 with Braddock's successor, William Shirley, and again in January 1757 with Shirley's successor, Lord Loudoun. Shirley ruled in Washington's favor only in the matter of Dagworthy; Loudoun humiliated Washington, refused him a royal commission and agreed only to relieve him of the responsibility of manning Fort Cumberland.[45] In 1758, the Virginia Regiment was assigned to the British Forbes Expedition to capture Fort Duquesne.[46][f] Washington disagreed with General John Forbes' tactics and chosen route.[48] Forbes nevertheless made Washington a brevet brigadier general and gave him command of one of the three brigades that would assault the fort. The French abandoned the fort and the valley before the assault was launched; Washington saw only a friendly-fire incident which left 14 dead and 26 injured. The war lasted another four years, but Washington resigned his commission and returned to Mount Vernon.[49] Under Washington, the Virginia Regiment had defended 300 miles (480 km) of frontier against twenty Indian attacks in ten months.[50] He increased the professionalism of the regiment as it increased from 300 to 1,000 men, and Virginia's frontier population suffered less than other colonies. Some historians have said this was Washington's "only unqualified success" during the war.[51] Though he failed to realize a royal commission, he did gain self-confidence, leadership skills, and invaluable knowledge of British military tactics. The destructive competition Washington witnessed among colonial politicians fostered his later support of strong central government.[52] Marriage, civilian, and political life (1755–1775) Painting of Washington, by Charles Wilson Peale, standing in a formal pose, in a colonel's uniform, right hand inserted in shirt. Colonel George Washington, by Charles Willson Peale, 1772 On January 6, 1759, Washington, at age 26, married Martha Dandridge Custis, the 27-year-old widow of wealthy plantation owner Daniel Parke Custis. The marriage took place at Martha's estate; she was intelligent, gracious, and experienced in managing a planter's estate, and the couple created a happy marriage.[53] They raised John Parke Custis (Jacky) and Martha Parke (Patsy) Custis, children from her previous marriage, and later their grandchildren Eleanor Parke Custis (Nelly) and George Washington Parke Custis (Washy). Washington's 1751 bout with smallpox is thought to have rendered him sterile, though it is equally likely "Martha may have sustained injury during the birth of Patsy, her final child, making additional births impossible."[54] They lamented the fact that they had no children together.[55] They moved to Mount Vernon, near Alexandria, where he took up life as a planter of tobacco and wheat and emerged as a political figure.[56] The marriage gave Washington control over Martha's one-third dower interest in the 18,000-acre (7,300 ha) Custis estate, and he managed the remaining two-thirds for Martha's children; the estate also included 84 slaves. He became one of Virginia's wealthiest men, which increased his social standing.[57] At Washington's urging, Governor Lord Botetourt fulfilled Dinwiddie's 1754 promise of land bounties to all volunteer militia during the French and Indian War.[58] In late 1770, Washington inspected the lands in the Ohio and Great Kanawha regions, and he engaged surveyor William Crawford to subdivide it. Crawford allotted 23,200 acres (9,400 ha) to Washington; Washington told the veterans that their land was hilly and unsuitable for farming, and he agreed to purchase 20,147 acres (8,153 ha), leaving some feeling they had been duped.[59] He also doubled the size of Mount Vernon to 6,500 acres (2,600 ha) and increased its slave population to more than a hundred by 1775.[60] Washington’s political activities included supporting the candidacy of his friend George William Fairfax in his 1755 bid to represent the region in the Virginia House of Burgess. This support lead to a dispute which resulted in a physical altercation between Washington and another Virginia planter, William Payne. Washington defused the situation, including ordering officers from the Virginia Regiment to stand down. Washington apologized to Payne the following day at a tavern. Payne had been expecting to be challenged to a duel.[61][62][63] As a respected military hero and large landowner, Washington held local offices and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, representing Frederick County in the House of Burgesses for seven years beginning in 1758.[60] He plied the voters with beer, brandy, and other beverages, although he was absent while serving on the Forbes Expedition.[64] He won election with roughly 40 percent of the vote, defeating three other candidates with the help of several local supporters. He rarely spoke in his early legislative career, but he became a prominent critic of both Britain's taxation policy and mercantilist policies towards the American colonies starting in the 1760s.[65] A mezzotint of Martha Washington, standing, wearing a formal gown, based on a 1757 portrait by John Wollaston Martha Washington based on a 1757 portrait by John Wollaston By occupation, Washington was a planter, and he imported luxuries and other goods from England, paying for them by exporting tobacco.[66] His profligate spending combined with low tobacco prices left him £1,800 in debt by 1764, prompting him to diversify his holdings.[67] In 1765, because of erosion and other soil problems, he changed Mount Vernon's primary cash crop from tobacco to wheat and expanded operations to include corn flour milling and fishing.[68] Washington also took time for leisure with fox hunting, fishing, dances, theater, cards, backgammon, and billiards.[69] Washington soon was counted among the political and social elite in Virginia. From 1768 to 1775, he invited some 2,000 guests to his Mount Vernon estate, mostly those whom he considered "people of rank". He became more politically active in 1769, presenting legislation in the Virginia Assembly to establish an embargo on goods from Great Britain.[70] Washington's step-daughter Patsy Custis suffered from epileptic attacks from age 12, and she died in his arms in 1773. The following day, he wrote to Burwell Bassett: "It is easier to conceive, than to describe, the distress of this Family".[71] He canceled all business activity and remained with Martha every night for three months.[72] Opposition to British Parliament Further information: American Revolution, American Revolutionary War, and George Washington in the American Revolution Washington played a central role before and during the American Revolution. His disdain for the British military had begun when he was passed over for promotion into the Regular Army. Opposed to taxes imposed by the British Parliament on the Colonies without proper representation,[73] he and other colonists were also angered by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 which banned American settlement west of the Allegheny Mountains and protected the British fur trade.[74] Washington believed the Stamp Act of 1765 was an "Act of Oppression", and he celebrated its repeal the following year.[g] In March 1766, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act asserting that Parliamentary law superseded colonial law.[76] Washington helped lead widespread protests against the Townshend Acts passed by Parliament in 1767, and he introduced a proposal in May 1769 drafted by George Mason which called Virginians to boycott British goods; the Acts were mostly repealed in 1770.[77] Parliament sought to punish Massachusetts colonists for their role in the Boston Tea Party in 1774 by passing the Coercive Acts, which Washington referred to as "an invasion of our rights and privileges".[78] He said Americans must not submit to acts of tyranny since "custom and use shall make us as tame and abject slaves, as the blacks we rule over with such arbitrary sway".[79] That July, he and George Mason drafted a list of resolutions for the Fairfax County committee which Washington chaired, and the committee adopted the Fairfax Resolves calling for a Continental Congress.[80] On August 1, Washington attended the First Virginia Convention, where he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress.[81] As tensions rose in 1774, he helped train county militias in Virginia and organized enforcement of the Continental Association boycott of British goods instituted by the Congress.[82] The American Revolutionary War began on April 19, 1775, with the Battles of Lexington and Concord and the Siege of Boston.[83] The colonists were divided over breaking away from British rule and split into two factions: Patriots who rejected British rule, and Loyalists who desired to remain subject to the King.[84] General Thomas Gage was commander of British forces in America at the beginning of the war.[85] Upon hearing the shocking news of the onset of war, Washington was "sobered and dismayed",[86] and he hastily departed Mount Vernon on May 4, 1775, to join the Continental Congress in Philadelphia.[87] Commander in chief (1775–1783) See also: American Revolutionary War § American strategy Further information: Military career of George Washington Formal painting of General George Washington, standing in uniform, as commander of the Continental Army General Washington, Commander of the Continental Army by Charles Willson Peale (1776) Congress created the Continental Army on June 14, 1775, and Samuel and John Adams nominated Washington to become its commander-in-chief. Washington was chosen over John Hancock because of his military experience and the belief that a Virginian would better unite the colonies. He was considered an incisive leader who kept his "ambition in check".[88] He was unanimously elected commander in chief by Congress the next day.[89] Washington appeared before Congress in uniform and gave an acceptance speech on June 16, declining a salary—though he was later reimbursed expenses. He was commissioned on June 19 and was roundly praised by Congressional delegates, including John Adams, who proclaimed that he was the man best suited to lead and unite the colonies.[90][91] Congress appointed Washington "General & Commander in chief of the army of the United Colonies and of all the forces raised or to be raised by them", and instructed him to take charge of the siege of Boston on June 22, 1775.[92] Congress chose his primary staff officers, including Major General Artemas Ward, Adjutant General Horatio Gates, Major General Charles Lee, Major General Philip Schuyler, Major General Nathanael Greene, Colonel Henry Knox, and Colonel Alexander Hamilton.[93] Washington was impressed by Colonel Benedict Arnold and gave him responsibility for launching an invasion of Canada. He also engaged French and Indian War compatriot Brigadier General Daniel Morgan. Henry Knox impressed Adams with ordnance knowledge, and Washington promoted him to colonel and chief of artillery.[94] Washington initially opposed enlistment of slaves into the Continental Army, but later he relented when the British issued proclamations such as Dunmore's Proclamation, which promised freedom to slaves of Patriot masters if they joined the British.[95] On January 16, 1776, Congress allowed free blacks to serve in the militia. By the end of the war one-tenth of Washington's army were blacks.[96] Siege of Boston Main article: Siege of Boston Washington taking command of the Continental Army, just before the siege Early in 1775, in response to the growing rebellious movement, London sent British troops, commanded by General Thomas Gage, to occupy Boston. They set up fortifications about the city, making it impervious to attack. Various local militias surrounded the city and effectively trapped the British, resulting in a standoff.[97] As Washington headed for Boston, word of his march preceded him, and he was greeted everywhere; gradually he became a symbol of the Patriot cause.[98][h] Upon arrival on July 2, 1775, two weeks after the Patriot defeat at nearby Bunker Hill, he set up his Cambridge, Massachusetts headquarters and inspected the new army there, only to find an undisciplined and badly outfitted militia.[99] After consultation, he initiated Benjamin Franklin's suggested reforms—drilling the soldiers and imposing strict discipline, floggings, and incarceration.[100] Washington ordered his officers to identify the skills of recruits to ensure military effectiveness, while removing incompetent officers.[101] He petitioned Gage, his former superior, to release captured Patriot officers from prison and treat them humanely.[102] In October 1775, King George III declared that the colonies were in open rebellion and relieved General Gage of command for incompetence, replacing him with General William Howe.[103] In June 1775, Congress ordered an invasion of Canada. It was led by Benedict Arnold, who, despite Washington's strong objection, drew volunteers from the latter's force during the Siege of Boston. The move on Quebec failed, with the American forces being reduced to less than half and forced to retreat.[104] The Continental Army, further diminished by expiring short-term enlistments, and by January 1776 reduced by half to 9,600 men, had to be supplemented with militia, and was joined by Knox with heavy artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga.[105] When the Charles River froze over Washington was eager to cross and storm Boston, but General Gates and others were opposed to untrained militia striking well-garrisoned fortifications. Washington reluctantly agreed to secure the Dorchester Heights, 100 feet above Boston, in an attempt to force the British out of the city.[106] On March 9, under cover of darkness, Washington's troops brought up Knox's big guns and bombarded British ships in Boston harbor. On March 17 9,000 British troops and Loyalists began a chaotic ten-day evacuation of Boston aboard 120 ships. Soon after, Washington entered the city with 500 men, with explicit orders not to plunder the city. He ordered vaccinations against smallpox to great effect, as he did later in Morristown, New Jersey.[107] He refrained from exerting military authority in Boston, leaving civilian matters in the hands of local authorities.[108][i] Battle of Long Island Main article: Battle of Long Island Painting by Alonzo Chappel, 1858, showing the frantic battle scene of the Battle of Long Island, with smoke in the background Battle of Long Island Alonzo Chappel (1858) Washington then proceeded to New York City, arriving on April 13, 1776, and began constructing fortifications there to thwart the expected British attack. He ordered his occupying forces to treat civilians and their property with respect, to avoid the abuses which were suffered by Bostonian citizens at the hands of British troops during their occupation.[110] A plot to assassinate or capture him was discovered but thwarted, though his bodyguard Thomas Hickey was hanged for mutiny and sedition.[111] General Howe transported his resupplied army, with the British fleet, from Halifax to New York, knowing the city was key to securing the continent. George Germain, who ran the British war effort in England, believed it could be won with one "decisive blow".[112] The British forces, including more than a hundred ships and thousands of troops, began arriving on Staten Island on July 2 to lay siege to the city.[113] After the Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4, Washington informed his troops in his general orders of July 9 that Congress had declared the united colonies to be "free and independent states".[114] Howe's troop strength totaled 32,000 regulars and Hessians auxiliaries, and Washington's consisted of 23,000, mostly raw recruits and militia.[115] In August, Howe landed 20,000 troops at Gravesend, Brooklyn, and approached Washington's fortifications, as George III proclaimed the rebellious American colonists to be traitors.[116] Washington, opposing his generals, chose to fight, based upon inaccurate information that Howe's army had only 8,000-plus troops.[117] In the Battle of Long Island, Howe assaulted Washington's flank and inflicted 1,500 Patriot casualties, the British suffering 400.[118] Washington retreated, instructing General William Heath to acquisition river craft in the area. On August 30, General William Alexander held off the British and gave cover while the army crossed the East River under darkness to Manhattan Island without loss of life or materiel, although Alexander was captured.[119] Howe, emboldened by his Long Island victory, dispatched Washington as "George Washington, Esq.", in futility to negotiate peace. Washington declined, demanding to be addressed with diplomatic protocol, as general and fellow belligerent, not as a "rebel", lest his men be hanged as such if captured.[120] The Royal Navy bombarded the unstable earthworks on lower Manhattan Island.[121] Washington, with misgivings, heeded the advice of Generals Greene and Putnam to defend Fort Washington. They were unable to hold it, and Washington abandoned it despite General Lee's objections, as his army retired north to the White Plains.[122] Howe's pursuit forced Washington to retreat across the Hudson River to Fort Lee to avoid encirclement. Howe landed his troops on Manhattan in November and captured Fort Washington, inflicting high casualties on the Americans. Washington was responsible for delaying the retreat, though he blamed Congress and General Greene. Loyalists in New York considered Howe a liberator and spread a rumor that Washington had set fire to the city.[123] Patriot morale reached its lowest when Lee was captured.[124] Now reduced to 5,400 troops, Washington's army retreated through New Jersey, and Howe broke off pursuit, delaying his advance on Philadelphia, and set up winter quarters in New York.[125] Crossing the Delaware, Trenton, and Princeton Main articles: George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River, Battle of Trenton, Battle of the Assunpink Creek, and Battle of Princeton Famous 1851 painting by Emanuel Leutze, depicting Washington, standing in boat with his troops, crossing the icy Delaware River, with soldiers pushing away chunks of ice Washington Crossing the Delaware, Emanuel Leutze (1851)[j] Washington crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, where Lee's replacement John Sullivan joined him with 2,000 more troops.[127] The future of the Continental Army was in doubt for lack of supplies, a harsh winter, expiring enlistments, and desertions. Washington was disappointed that many New Jersey residents were Loyalists or skeptical about the prospect of independence.[128] Howe split up his British Army and posted a Hessian garrison at Trenton to hold western New Jersey and the east shore of the Delaware,[129] but the army appeared complacent, and Washington and his generals devised a surprise attack on the Hessians at Trenton, which he codenamed "Victory or Death".[130] The army was to cross the Delaware River to Trenton in three divisions: one led by Washington (2,400 troops), another by General James Ewing (700), and the third by Colonel John Cadwalader (1,500). The force was to then split, with Washington taking the Pennington Road and General Sullivan traveling south on the river's edge.[131] The Passage of the Delaware, by Thomas Sully, 1819 (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) Washington first ordered a 60-mile search for Durham boats, to transport his army, and he ordered the destruction of vessels that could be used by the British.[132] He crossed the Delaware River on the night of December 25–26, 1776, and risked capture staking out the Jersey shoreline. His men followed across the ice-obstructed river in sleet and snow from McConkey's Ferry, with 40 men per vessel. Wind churned up the waters, and they were pelted with hail, but by 3:00 a.m. on December 26, they made it across with no losses.[133] Henry Knox was delayed, managing frightened horses and about 18 field guns on flat-bottomed ferries. Cadwalader and Ewing failed to cross due to the ice and heavy currents, and a waiting Washington doubted his planned attack on Trenton. Once Knox arrived, Washington proceeded to Trenton, to take only his troops against the Hessians, rather than risk being spotted returning his army to Pennsylvania.[134] The troops spotted Hessian positions a mile from Trenton, so Washington split his force into two columns, rallying his men: "Soldiers keep by your officers. For God's sake, keep by your officers." The two columns were separated at the Birmingham crossroads, with General Nathanael Greene's column taking the upper Ferry Road, led by Washington, and General John Sullivan's advancing on River Road. (See map.)[135] The Americans marched in sleet and snowfall. Many were shoeless with bloodied feet, and two died of exposure. At sunrise, Washington led them in a surprise attack on the Hessians, aided by Major General Knox and artillery. The Hessians had 22 killed (including Colonel Johann Rall), 83 wounded, and 850 captured with supplies.[136] Painting showing Washington on horseback, accepting the surrender of Hessian troops after the Battle at Trenton The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776 by John Trumbull Washington retreated across the Delaware to Pennsylvania but returned to New Jersey on January 3, launching an attack on British regulars at Princeton, with 40 Americans killed or wounded and 273 British killed or captured.[137] American Generals Hugh Mercer and John Cadwalader were being driven back by the British when Mercer was mortally wounded, then Washington arrived and led the men in a counterattack which advanced to within 30 yards (27 m) of the British line.[138] Some British troops retreated after a brief stand, while others took refuge in Nassau Hall, which became the target of Colonel Alexander Hamilton's cannons. Washington's troops charged, the British surrendered in less than an hour, and 194 soldiers laid down their arms.[139] Howe retreated to New York City where his army remained inactive until early the next year.[140] Washington's depleted Continental Army took up winter headquarters in Morristown, New Jersey while disrupting British supply lines and expelling them from parts of New Jersey. Washington later said the British could have successfully counterattacked his encampment before his troops were dug in.[141] The British still controlled New York, and many Patriot soldiers did not re-enlist or deserted after the harsh winter campaign. Congress instituted greater rewards for re-enlisting and punishments for desertion in an effort to effect greater troop numbers.[142] Strategically, Washington's victories were pivotal for the Revolution and quashed the British strategy of showing overwhelming force followed by offering generous terms.[143] In February 1777, word reached London of the American victories at Trenton and Princeton, and the British realized the Patriots were in a position to demand unconditional independence.[144] Brandywine, Germantown, and Saratoga Main articles: Battle of Brandywine, Battle of Germantown, and Battle of Saratoga In July 1777, British General John Burgoyne led the Saratoga campaign south from Quebec through Lake Champlain and recaptured Fort Ticonderoga with the objective of dividing New England, including control of the Hudson River. But General Howe in British-occupied New York blundered, taking his army south to Philadelphia rather than up the Hudson River to join Burgoyne near Albany.[145] Meanwhile, Washington and Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette rushed to Philadelphia to engage Howe and were shocked to learn of Burgoyne's progress in upstate New York, where the Patriots were led by General Philip Schuyler and successor Horatio Gates. Washington's army of less experienced men were defeated in the pitched battles at Philadelphia.[146] Howe outmaneuvered Washington at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777, and marched unopposed into the nation's capital at Philadelphia. A Patriot attack failed against the British at Germantown in October. Major General Thomas Conway prompted some members of Congress (referred to as the Conway Cabal) to consider removing Washington from command because of the losses incurred at Philadelphia. Washington's supporters resisted and the matter was finally dropped after much deliberation.[147] Once the plot was exposed, Conway wrote an apology to Washington, resigned, and returned to France.[148] Washington was concerned with Howe's movements during the Saratoga campaign to the north, and he was also aware that Burgoyne was moving south toward Saratoga from Quebec. Washington took some risks to support Gates' army, sending reinforcements north with Generals Benedict Arnold, his most aggressive field commander, and Benjamin Lincoln. On October 7, 1777, Burgoyne tried to take Bemis Heights but was isolated from support by Howe. He was forced to retreat to Saratoga and ultimately surrendered after the Battles of Saratoga. As Washington suspected, Gates' victory emboldened his critics.[149] Biographer John Alden maintains, "It was inevitable that the defeats of Washington's forces and the concurrent victory of the forces in upper New York should be compared." The admiration for Washington was waning, including little credit from John Adams.[150] British commander Howe resigned in May 1778, left America forever, and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton.[151] Valley Forge and Monmouth Main articles: Valley Forge and Battle of Monmouth Painting showing Washington and Lafayette on horseback in a winter setting, at Valley Forge Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge, by John Ward Dunsmore (1907) Washington's army of 11,000 went into winter quarters at Valley Forge north of Philadelphia in December 1777. They suffered between 2,000 and 3,000 deaths in the extreme cold over six months, mostly from disease and lack of food, clothing, and shelter.[152] Meanwhile, the British were comfortably quartered in Philadelphia, paying for supplies in pounds sterling, while Washington struggled with a devalued American paper currency. The woodlands were soon exhausted of game, and by February lowered morale and increased desertions ensued.[153] Washington made repeated petitions to the Continental Congress for provisions. He received a congressional delegation to check the Army's conditions, and expressed the urgency of the situation, proclaiming: "Something must be done. Important alterations must be made." He recommended that Congress expedite supplies, and Congress agreed to strengthen and fund the army's supply lines by reorganizing the commissary department. By late February, supplies began arriving.[109] Washington Rallying the Troops at Monmouth, Emanuel Leutze (1851–1854) Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben's incessant drilling soon transformed Washington's recruits into a disciplined fighting force,[154] and the revitalized army emerged from Valley Forge early the following year.[155] Washington promoted Von Steuben to Major General and made him chief of staff.[156] In early 1778, the French responded to Burgoyne's defeat and entered into a Treaty of Alliance with the Americans. The Continental Congress ratified the treaty in May, which amounted to a French declaration of war against Britain.[157] The British evacuated Philadelphia for New York that June and Washington summoned a war council of American and French Generals. He chose a partial attack on the retreating British at the Battle of Monmouth; the British were commanded by Howe's successor General Henry Clinton. Generals Charles Lee and Lafayette moved with 4,000 men, without Washington's knowledge, and bungled their first attack on June 28. Washington relieved Lee and achieved a draw after an expansive battle. At nightfall, the British continued their retreat to New York, and Washington moved his army outside the city.[158] Monmouth was Washington's last battle in the North; he valued the safety of his army more than towns with little value to the British.[159] West Point espionage Main articles: West Point and Military career of Benedict Arnold, 1777–1779 Washington became "America's first spymaster" by designing an espionage system against the British.[160] In 1778, Major Benjamin Tallmadge formed the Culper Ring at Washington's direction to covertly collect information about the British in New York.[161] Washington had disregarded incidents of disloyalty by Benedict Arnold, who had distinguished himself in many battles.[162] During mid-1780, Arnold began supplying British spymaster John André with sensitive information intended to compromise Washington and capture West Point, a key American defensive position on the Hudson River.[163] Historians have noted several possible reasons for Arnold's treachery: his anger at losing promotions to junior officers, the repeated slights from Congress. He was also deeply in debt, had been profiteering from the war and was disappointed by Washington's lack of support during his resultant court-martial.[164] Arnold repeatedly asked for command of West Point, and Washington finally agreed in August.[165] Arnold met André on September 21, giving him plans to take over the garrison.[166] Militia forces captured André and discovered the plans, but Arnold escaped to New York.[167] Washington recalled the commanders positioned under Arnold at key points around the fort to prevent any complicity, but he did not suspect Arnold's wife Peggy. Washington assumed personal command at West Point and reorganized its defenses.[168] André's trial for espionage ended in a death sentence, and Washington offered to return him to the British in exchange for Arnold, but Clinton refused. André was hanged on October 2, 1780, despite his last request being to face a firing squad, in order to deter other spies.[169] Southern theater and Yorktown Main article: Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War Painting showing French King Louis XVI, standing, wearing formal King's robe French King Louis XVI allied with Washington and Patriot American colonists In late 1778, General Clinton shipped 3,000 troops from New York to Georgia and launched a Southern invasion against Savannah, reinforced by 2,000 British and Loyalist troops. They repelled an attack by Patriots and French naval forces, which bolstered the British war effort.[170] In mid-1779, Washington attacked Iroquois warriors of the Six Nations in order to force Britain's Indian allies out of New York, from which they had assaulted New England towns.[171] The Indian warriors joined with Loyalist rangers led by Walter Butler and viciously slew more than 200 frontiersmen in June, laying waste to the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania.[172] In response, Washington ordered General John Sullivan to lead an expedition to effect "the total destruction and devastation" of Iroquois villages and take their women and children hostage. Those who managed to escape fled to Canada.[173] Washington's troops went into quarters at Morristown, New Jersey during the winter of 1779–1780 and suffered their worst winter of the war, with temperatures well below freezing. New York Harbor was frozen over, snow and ice covered the ground for weeks, and the troops again lacked provisions.[174] Clinton assembled 12,500 troops and attacked Charlestown, South Carolina in January 1780, defeating General Benjamin Lincoln who had only 5,100 Continental troops.[175] The British went on to occupy the South Carolina Piedmont in June, with no Patriot resistance. Clinton returned to New York and left 8,000 troops commanded by General Charles Cornwallis.[176] Congress replaced Lincoln with Horatio Gates; he failed in South Carolina and was replaced by Washington's choice of Nathaniel Greene, but the British already had the South in their grasp. Washington was reinvigorated, however, when Lafayette returned from France with more ships, men, and supplies,[177] and 5,000 veteran French troops led by Marshal Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island in July 1780.[178] French naval forces then landed, led by Admiral Grasse, and Washington encouraged Rochambeau to move his fleet south to launch a joint land and naval attack on Arnold's troops.[179] Washington's army went into winter quarters at New Windsor, New York in December 1780, and Washington urged Congress and state officials to expedite provisions in hopes that the army would not "continue to struggle under the same difficulties they have hitherto endured".[180] On March 1, 1781, Congress ratified the Articles of Confederation, but the government that took effect on March 2 did not have the power to levy taxes, and it loosely held the states together.[181] General Clinton sent Benedict Arnold, now a British Brigadier General with 1,700 troops, to Virginia to capture Portsmouth and to conduct raids on Patriot forces from there; Washington responded by sending Lafayette south to counter Arnold's efforts.[182] Washington initially hoped to bring the fight to New York, drawing off British forces from Virginia and ending the war there, but Rochambeau advised Grasse that Cornwallis in Virginia was the better target. Grasse's fleet arrived off the Virginia coast and Washington saw the advantage. He made a feint towards Clinton in New York, then headed south to Virginia.[183] Generals Washington and Rochambeau, standing in front of HQ tent, giving last orders before the attack on Yorktown Siege of Yorktown, Generals Washington and Rochambeau give last orders before the attack The Siege of Yorktown was a decisive allied victory by the combined forces of the Continental Army commanded by General Washington, the French Army commanded by the General Comte de Rochambeau, and the French Navy commanded by Admiral de Grasse, in the defeat of Cornwallis' British forces. On August 19, the march to Yorktown led by Washington and Rochambeau began, which is known now as the "celebrated march".[184] Washington was in command of an army of 7,800 Frenchmen, 3,100 militia, and 8,000 Continentals. Lacking in experience in siege warfare, Washington often deferred judgment to Rochambeau, effectively putting him in command; however, Rochambeau never challenged Washington's authority.[185] By late September, Patriot-French forces completely surrounded Yorktown, trapped the British army, and prevented British reinforcements from Clinton in the North, while the French navy emerged victorious at the Battle of the Chesapeake. The final American offensive was begun with a shot fired by Washington.[186] The siege ended with a British surrender on October 19, 1781; over 7,000 British soldiers were made prisoners of war, in the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War.[187] Washington negotiated the terms of surrender for two days, and the official signing ceremony took place on October 19; Cornwallis, in fact, claimed illness and was absent, sending General Charles O'Hara as his proxy.[188] As a gesture of goodwill, Washington held a dinner for the American, French, and British generals, all of whom fraternized on friendly terms and identified with one another as members of the same professional military caste.[189] After the surrender at Yorktown, a situation developed that threatened relations between the newly independent America and Britain.[190] Following a series of retributive executions between Patriots and Loyalists, Washington, on May 18, 1782, wrote in a letter to General Moses Hazen[191] that a British captain would be executed in retaliation for the execution of Joshua Huddy, a popular Patriot leader, who was hanged at the direction of the Loyalist Richard Lippincott. Washington wanted Lippincott himself to be executed but was rebuffed.[192] Subsequently, Charles Asgill was chosen instead, by a drawing of lots from a hat. This was a violation of the 14th article of the Yorktown Articles of Capitulation, which protected prisoners of war from acts of retaliation.[191][193] Later, Washington's feelings on matters changed and in a letter of November 13, 1782, to Asgill, he acknowledged Asgill's letter and situation, expressing his desire not to see any harm come to him.[194] After much consideration between the Continental Congress, Alexander Hamilton, Washington, and appeals from the French Crown, Asgill was finally released,[195] where Washington issued Asgill a pass that allowed his passage to New York.[196][191] Demobilization and resignation Painting by John Trumbull, depicting General Washington, standing in Maryland State House hall, surrounded by statesmen and others, resigning his commission General George Washington Resigning His Commission, by John Trumbull, 1824 As peace negotiations started, the British gradually evacuated troops from Savannah, Charlestown, and New York by 1783, and the French army and navy likewise departed.[197] The American treasury was empty, unpaid and mutinous soldiers forced the adjournment of Congress, and Washington dispelled unrest by suppressing the Newburgh Conspiracy in March 1783; Congress promised officers a five-year bonus.[198] Washington submitted an account of $450,000 in expenses which he had advanced to the army. The account was settled, though it was allegedly vague about large sums and included expenses his wife had incurred through visits to his headquarters.[199] Washington resigned as commander-in-chief once the Treaty of Paris was signed, and he planned to retire to Mount Vernon. The treaty was ratified in April 1783, and Hamilton's Congressional committee adapted the army for peacetime. Washington gave the Army's perspective to the committee in his Sentiments on a Peace Establishment.[200] The Treaty was signed on September 3, 1783, and Great Britain officially recognized the independence of the United States. Washington then disbanded his army, giving an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers on November 2.[201] On November 25, the British evacuated New York City, and Washington and Governor George Clinton took possession.[202] Washington advised Congress in August 1783 to keep a standing army, create a "national militia" of separate state units, and establish a navy and a national military academy. He circulated his "Farewell" orders that discharged his troops, whom he called "one patriotic band of brothers". Before his return to Mount Vernon, he oversaw the evacuation of British forces in New York and was greeted by parades and celebrations, where he announced that Colonel Henry Knox had been promoted commander-in-chief.[203] After leading the Continental Army for 8½ years, Washington bade farewell to his officers at Fraunces Tavern in December 1783, and resigned his commission days later, refuting Loyalist predictions that he would not relinquish his military command.[204] In a final appearance in uniform, he gave a statement to the Congress: "I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them, to his holy keeping."[205] Washington's resignation was acclaimed at home and abroad and showed a skeptical world that the new republic would not degenerate into chaos.[206][k] The same month, Washington was appointed president-general of the Society of the Cincinnati, a hereditary fraternity, and he served for the remainder of his life.[208][l] Early republic (1783–1789) Further information: Confederation Period and Articles of Confederation Return to Mount Vernon I am not only retired from all public employments but I am retiring within myself, and shall be able to view the solitary walk and tread the paths of private life with heartfelt satisfaction ... I will move gently down the stream of life, until I sleep with my fathers. George Washington Letter to Lafayette February 1, 1784[210] Washington was longing to return home after spending just 10 days at Mount Vernon out of ​8 1⁄2 years of war. He arrived on Christmas Eve, delighted to be "free of the bustle of a camp and the busy scenes of public life".[211] He was a celebrity and was fêted during a visit to his mother at Fredericksburg in February 1784, and he received a constant stream of visitors wishing to pay their respects to him at Mount Vernon.[212] Washington reactivated his interests in the Great Dismal Swamp and Potomac canal projects begun before the war, though neither paid him any dividends, and he undertook a 34-day, 680-mile (1090km) trip to check on his land holdings in the Ohio Country.[213] He oversaw the completion of the remodeling work at Mount Vernon which transformed his residence into the mansion that survives to this day—although his financial situation was not strong. Creditors paid him in depreciated wartime currency, and he owed significant amounts in taxes and wages. Mount Vernon had made no profit during his absence, and he saw persistently poor crop yields due to pestilence and poor weather. His estate recorded its eleventh year running at a deficit in 1787, and there was little prospect of improvement.[214] Washington undertook a new landscaping plan and succeeded in cultivating a range of fast-growing trees and shrubs that were native to North America.[215] Constitutional Convention of 1787 Main article: Constitutional Convention (United States) Shays' Rebellion confirmed for Washington the need to overhaul the Articles of Confederation. Before returning to private life in June 1783, Washington called for a strong union. Though he was concerned that he might be criticized for meddling in civil matters, he sent a circular letter to all the states maintaining that the Articles of Confederation was no more than "a rope of sand" linking the states. He believed the nation was on the verge of "anarchy and confusion", was vulnerable to foreign intervention and that a national constitution would unify the states under a strong central government.[216] When Shays' Rebellion erupted in Massachusetts on August 29, 1786, over taxation, Washington was further convinced that a national constitution was needed.[217] Some nationalists feared that the new republic had descended into lawlessness, and they met together on September 11, 1786, at Annapolis to ask Congress to revise the Articles of Confederation. One of their biggest efforts, however, was getting Washington to attend.[218] Congress agreed to a Constitutional Convention to be held in Philadelphia in Spring 1787, and each state was to send delegates.[219] On December 4, 1786, Washington was chosen to lead the Virginia delegation, but he declined on December 21. He had concerns about the legality of the convention and consulted James Madison, Henry Knox, and others. They persuaded him to attend it, however, as his presence might induce reluctant states to send delegates and smooth the way for the ratification process.[220] On March 28, Washington told Governor Edmund Randolph that he would attend the convention, but made it clear that he was urged to attend.[221] Painting by Howard Chandler Christy, depicting the signing of the Constitution of the United States, with Washington as the presiding officer standing at right Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States by Howard Chandler Christy, 1940. Washington is the presiding officer standing at right. Washington arrived in Philadelphia on May 9, 1787, though a quorum was not attained until Friday, May 25. Benjamin Franklin nominated Washington to preside over the convention, and he was unanimously elected to serve as president general.[222] The convention's state-mandated purpose was to revise the Articles of Confederation with "all such alterations and further provisions" required to improve them, and the new government would be established when the resulting document was "duly confirmed by the several states".[223] Governor Edmund Randolph of Virginia introduced Madison's Virginia Plan on May 27, the third day of the convention. It called for an entirely new constitution and a sovereign national government, which Washington highly recommended.[224] Washington wrote Alexander Hamilton on July 10: "I almost despair of seeing a favorable issue to the proceedings of our convention and do therefore repent having had any agency in the business."[225] Nevertheless, he lent his prestige to the goodwill and work of the other delegates. He unsuccessfully lobbied many to support ratification of the Constitution, such as anti-federalist Patrick Henry; Washington told him "the adoption of it under the present circumstances of the Union is in my opinion desirable" and declared the alternative would be anarchy.[226] Washington and Madison then spent four days at Mount Vernon evaluating the transition of the new government.[227] First presidential election Main article: 1788–89 United States presidential election The delegates to the Convention anticipated a Washington presidency and left it to him to define the office once elected.[228][m] The state electors under the Constitution voted for the president on February 4, 1789, and Washington suspected that most republicans had not voted for him.[230] The mandated March 4 date passed without a Congressional quorum to count the votes, but a quorum was reached on April 5. The votes were tallied the next day,[231] and Congressional Secretary Charles Thomson was sent to Mount Vernon to tell Washington he had been elected president. Washington won the majority of every state's electoral votes; John Adams received the next highest number of votes and therefore became vice president.[232] Washington had "anxious and painful sensations" about leaving the "domestic felicity" of Mount Vernon, but departed for New York City on April 16 to be inaugurated.[233] Presidency (1789–1797) Main article: Presidency of George Washington Painting by Gilbert Stuart (1795), formal portrait of President George Washington President George Washington, Gilbert Stuart (1795) Washington was inaugurated on April 30, 1789, taking the oath of office at Federal Hall in New York City.[234][n] His coach was led by militia and a marching band and followed by statesmen and foreign dignitaries in an inaugural parade, with a crowd of 10,000.[236] Chancellor Robert R. Livingston administered the oath, using a Bible provided by the Masons, after which the militia fired a 13-gun salute.[237] Washington read a speech in the Senate Chamber, asking "that Almighty Being who rules over the universe, who presides in the councils of nations—and whose providential aids can supply every human defect, consecrate the liberties and happiness of the people of the United States".[238] Though he wished to serve without a salary, Congress insisted adamantly that he accept it, later providing Washington $25,000 per year to defray costs of the presidency.[239] Washington wrote to James Madison: "As the first of everything in our situation will serve to establish a precedent, it is devoutly wished on my part that these precedents be fixed on true principles."[240] To that end, he preferred the title "Mr. President" over more majestic names proposed by the Senate, including "His Excellency" and "His Highness the President".[241] His executive precedents included the inaugural address, messages to Congress, and the cabinet form of the executive branch.[242] Washington had planned to resign after his first term, but the political strife in the nation convinced him he should remain in office.[243] He was an able administrator and a judge of talent and character, and he talked regularly with department heads to get their advice.[244] He tolerated opposing views, despite fears that a democratic system would lead to political violence, and he conducted a smooth transition of power to his successor.[245] He remained non-partisan throughout his presidency and opposed the divisiveness of political parties, but he favored a strong central government, was sympathetic to a Federalist form of government, and leery of the Republican opposition.[246] Washington dealt with major problems. The old Confederation lacked the powers to handle its workload and had weak leadership, no executive, a small bureaucracy of clerks, a large debt, worthless paper money, and no power to establish taxes.[247] He had the task of assembling an executive department, and relied on Tobias Lear for advice selecting its officers.[248] Great Britain refused to relinquish its forts in the American West,[247] and Barbary pirates preyed on American merchant ships in the Mediterranean at a time when the United States did not even have a navy.[249] Cabinet and executive departments See also: Cabinet of the United States The Washington Cabinet Office Name Term President George Washington 1789–1797 Vice President John Adams 1789–1797 Secretary of State John Jay 1789–1790 Thomas Jefferson 1790–1793 Edmund Randolph 1794–1795 Timothy Pickering 1795–1797 Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton 1789–1795 Oliver Wolcott Jr. 1795–1797 Secretary of War Henry Knox 1789–1794 Timothy Pickering 1794–1796 James McHenry 1796–1797 Attorney General Edmund Randolph 1789–1794 William Bradford 1794–1795 Charles Lee 1795–1797 Congress created executive departments in 1789, including the State Department in July, the Department of War in August, and the Treasury Department in September. Washington appointed fellow Virginian Edmund Randolph as Attorney General, Samuel Osgood as Postmaster General, Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State, and Henry Knox as Secretary of War. Finally, he appointed Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury. Washington's cabinet became a consulting and advisory body, not mandated by the Constitution.[250] Washington's cabinet members formed rival parties with sharply opposing views, most fiercely illustrated between Hamilton and Jefferson.[251] Washington restricted cabinet discussions to topics of his choosing, without participating in the debate. He occasionally requested cabinet opinions in writing and expected department heads to agreeably carry out his decisions.[247] Domestic issues Washington was apolitical and opposed the formation of parties, suspecting that conflict would undermine republicanism.[252] His closest advisors formed two factions, portending the First Party System. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton formed the Federalist Party to promote the national credit and a financially powerful nation. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson opposed Hamilton's agenda and founded the Jeffersonian Republicans. Washington favored Hamilton's agenda, however, and it ultimately went into effect—resulting in bitter controversy.[253] Washington proclaimed November 26 as a day of Thanksgiving in order to encourage national unity. "It is the duty of all nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey His will, to be grateful for His benefits, and humbly to implore His protection and favor." He spent that day fasting and visiting debtors in prison to provide them with food and beer.[254] In response to two antislavery petitions, Georgia and South Carolina objected and were threatening to "blow the trumpet of civil war". Washington and Congress responded with a series of pro-slavery measures: citizenship was denied to black immigrants; slaves were barred from serving in state militias; two more slave states (Kentucky in 1792, Tennessee in 1796) were admitted; and the continuation of slavery in federal territories south of the Ohio River was guaranteed. On February 12, 1793, Washington signed into law the Fugitive Slave Act, which overrode state laws and courts, allowing agents to cross state lines to capture and return escaped slaves.[255] Many in the north decried the law believing the act allowed bounty hunting and the kidnappings of blacks.[256] The Slave Trade Act of 1794, sharply limiting American involvement in the Atlantic slave trade, was also enacted.[257] National Bank Engraving of President Washington's House in Philadelphia, his residence from 1790 to 1797 The President's House in Philadelphia was Washington's residence from 1790 to 1797 Washington's first term was largely devoted to economic concerns, in which Hamilton had devised various plans to address matters.[258] The establishment of public credit became a primary challenge for the federal government.[259] Hamilton submitted a report to a deadlocked Congress, and he, Madison, and Jefferson reached the Compromise of 1790 in which Jefferson agreed to Hamilton's debt proposals in exchange for moving the nation's capital temporarily to Philadelphia and then south near Georgetown on the Potomac River.[253] The terms were legislated in the Funding Act of 1790 and the Residence Act, both of which Washington signed into law. Congress authorized the assumption and payment of the nation's debts, with funding provided by customs duties and excise taxes.[260] Hamilton created controversy among Cabinet members by advocating the establishment of the First Bank of the United States. Madison and Jefferson objected, but the bank easily passed Congress. Jefferson and Randolph insisted that the new bank was beyond the authority granted by the constitution, as Hamilton believed. Washington sided with Hamilton and signed the legislation on February 25, and the rift became openly hostile between Hamilton and Jefferson.[261] The nation's first financial crisis occurred in March 1792. Hamilton's Federalists exploited large loans to gain control of U.S. debt securities, causing a run on the national bank;[262] the markets returned to normal by mid-April.[263] Jefferson believed Hamilton was part of the scheme, in spite of Hamilton's efforts to ameliorate, and Washington again found himself in the middle of a feud.[264] Jefferson–Hamilton feud Jefferson and Hamilton, bitter rivals Formal portrait of Thomas Jefferson, part of a dual image of Jefferson and Hamilton Thomas Jefferson Formal portrait of Alexander Hamilton, part of a dual image of Jefferson and Hamilton Alexander Hamilton Jefferson and Hamilton adopted diametrically opposed political principles. Hamilton believed in a strong national government requiring a national bank and foreign loans to function, while Jefferson believed the government should be primarily directed by the states and the farm element; he also resented the idea of banks and foreign loans. To Washington's dismay, the two men persistently entered into disputes and infighting.[265] Hamilton demanded that Jefferson resign if he could not support Washington, and Jefferson told Washington that Hamilton's fiscal system would lead to the overthrow of the Republic.[266] Washington urged them to call a truce for the nation's sake, but they ignored him.[267] Washington reversed his decision to retire after his first term in order to minimize party strife, but the feud continued after his re-election.[266] Jefferson's political actions, his support of Freneau's National Gazette,[268] and his attempt to undermine Hamilton nearly led Washington to dismiss him from the cabinet; Jefferson ultimately resigned his position in December 1793, and Washington forsook him from that time on.[269] The feud led to the well-defined Federalist and Republican parties, and party affiliation became necessary for election to Congress by 1794.[270] Washington remained aloof from congressional attacks on Hamilton, but he did not publicly protect him, either. The Hamilton–Reynolds sex scandal opened Hamilton to disgrace, but Washington continued to hold him in "very high esteem" as the dominant force in establishing federal law and government.[271] Whiskey Rebellion In March 1791, at Hamilton's urging, with support from Madison, Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits to help curtail the national debt, which took effect in July.[272] Grain farmers strongly protested in Pennsylvania's frontier districts; they argued that they were unrepresented and were shouldering too much of the debt, comparing their situation to excessive British taxation prior to the Revolutionary War. On August 2, Washington assembled his cabinet to discuss how to deal with the situation. Unlike Washington who had reservations about using force, Hamilton had long waited for such a situation and was eager to suppress the rebellion by use of Federal authority and force.[273] Not wanting to involve the federal government if possible, Washington called on Pennsylvania state officials to take the initiative, but they declined to take military action. On August 7, Washington issued his first proclamation for calling up state militias. After appealing for peace, he reminded the protestors that, unlike the rule of the British crown, the Federal law was issued by state-elected representatives.[274] Threats and violence against tax collectors, however, escalated into defiance against federal authority in 1794 and gave rise to the Whiskey Rebellion. Washington issued a final proclamation on September 25, threatening the use of military force to no avail.[274] The federal army was not up to the task, so Washington invoked the Militia Act of 1792 to summon state militias.[275] Governors sent troops, initially commanded by Washington, who gave the command to Light-Horse Harry Lee to lead them into the rebellious districts. They took 150 prisoners, and the remaining rebels dispersed without further fighting. Two of the prisoners were condemned to death, but Washington exercised his Constitutional authority for the first time and pardoned them.[276] Washington's forceful action demonstrated that the new government could protect itself and its tax collectors. This represented the first use of federal military force against the states and citizens,[277] and remains the only time an incumbent president has commanded troops in the field. Washington justified his action against "certain self-created societies" which he regarded as "subversive organizations" which threatened the national union. He did not dispute their right to protest, but he insisted that their dissent must not violate federal law. Congress agreed and extended their congratulations to him; only Madison and Jefferson expressed indifference.[278] Foreign affairs Gilbert Stuart portrait of Chief Justice John Jay in robes, seated and holding a law book John Jay, negotiator of the Jay Treaty In April 1792, the French Revolutionary Wars began between Great Britain and France, and Washington declared America's neutrality. The revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Citizen Genêt to America, and he was welcomed with great enthusiasm. He created a network of new Democratic-Republican Societies promoting France's interests, but Washington denounced them and demanded that the French recall Genêt.[279] The National Assembly of France granted Washington honorary French citizenship on August 26, 1792, during the early stages of the French Revolution.[280] Hamilton formulated the Jay Treaty to normalize trade relations with Great Britain while removing them from western forts, and also to resolve financial debts remaining from the Revolution.[281] Chief Justice John Jay acted as Washington's negotiator and signed the treaty on November 19, 1794; critical Jeffersonians, however, supported France. Washington deliberated, then supported the treaty because it avoided war with Britain,[282] but was disappointed that its provisions favored Britain.[283] He mobilized public opinion and secured ratification in the Senate[284] but faced frequent public criticism.[285] The British agreed to abandon their forts around the Great Lakes, and the United States modified the boundary with Canada. The government liquidated numerous pre-Revolutionary debts, and the British opened the British West Indies to American trade. The treaty secured peace with Britain and a decade of prosperous trade. Jefferson claimed that it angered France and "invited rather than avoided" war.[286] Relations with France deteriorated afterwards, leaving succeeding president John Adams with prospective war.[287] James Monroe was the American Minister to France, but Washington recalled him for his opposition to the Treaty. The French refused to accept his replacement Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and the French Directory declared the authority to seize American ships two days before Washington's term ended. [288] Native American affairs Further information: Native Americans in the United States, Battle of Fallen Timbers, Treaty of New York (1790), Treaty of Greenville, Northwest Territory, and Ohio Country Portrait of Seneca Chief Sagoyewatha, Washington's peace emissary Seneca Chief Sagoyewatha was Washington's peace emissary with the Western Confederation. Ron Chernow describes Washington as always trying to be even-handed in dealing with the Natives. He states that Washington hoped they would abandon their itinerant hunting life and adapt to fixed agricultural communities in the manner of white settlers. He also maintains that Washington never advocated outright confiscation of tribal land or the forcible removal of tribes, and that he berated American settlers who abused natives, admitting that he held out no hope for pacific relations with the natives as long as "frontier settlers entertain the opinion that there is not the same crime (or indeed no crime at all) in killing an native as in killing a white man."[289] By contrast, Colin G. Calloway writes that "Washington had a lifelong obsession with getting Indian land, either for himself or for his nation, and initiated policies and campaigns that had devastating effects in Indian country."[290] "The growth of the nation," Galloway has stated, "demanded the dispossession of Indian people. Washington hoped the process could be bloodless and that Indian people would give up their lands for a "fair" price and move away. But if Indians refused and resisted, as they often did, he felt he had no choice but to "extirpate" them and that the expeditions he sent to destroy Indian towns were therefore entirely justified."[291] During the Fall of 1789, Washington had to contend with the British refusing to evacuate their forts in the Northwest frontier and their concerted efforts to incite hostile Indian tribes to attack American settlers.[292][o] The Northwest tribes under Miami chief Little Turtle allied with the British Army to resist American expansion, and killed 1,500 settlers between 1783 and 1790.[293] Washington decided that "The Government of the United States are determined that their Administration of Indian Affairs shall be directed entirely by the great principles of Justice and humanity",[294] and provided that their land interests should be negotiated by treaties.[294] The administration regarded powerful tribes as foreign nations, and Washington even smoked a peace pipe and drank wine with them at the Philadelphia presidential house.[295] He made numerous attempts to conciliate them;[296] he equated killing indigenous peoples with killing whites and sought to integrate them into European-American culture.[297] Secretary of War Henry Knox also attempted to encourage agriculture among the tribes.[296] In the Southwest, negotiations failed between federal commissioners and raiding Indian tribes seeking retribution. Washington invited Creek Chief Alexander McGillivray and 24 leading chiefs to New York to negotiate a treaty and treated them like foreign dignitaries. Knox and McGillivray concluded the Treaty of New York on August 7, 1790 in Federal Hall, which provided the tribes with agricultural supplies and McGillivray with a rank of Brigadier General Army and a salary of $1,500.[298] A R.F. Zogbaum scene of the Battle of Fallen Timbers includes Native Americans taking aim as cavalry soldiers charge with raised swords and one soldier is shot and loses his mount Battle of Fallen Timbers by R. F. Zogbaum, 1896. The Ohio Country was ceded to America in its aftermath. In 1790, Washington sent Brigadier General Josiah Harmar to pacify the Northwest tribes, but Little Turtle routed him twice and forced him to withdraw.[299] The Western Confederacy of tribes used guerrilla tactics and were an effective force against the sparsely manned American Army. Washington sent Major General Arthur St. Clair from Fort Washington on an expedition to restore peace in the territory in 1791. On November 4, St. Clair's forces were ambushed and soundly defeated by tribal forces with few survivors, despite Washington's warning of surprise attacks. Washington was outraged over what he viewed to be excessive Native American brutality and execution of captives, including women and children.[300] St. Clair resigned his commission, and Washington replaced him with the Revolutionary War hero General Anthony Wayne. From 1792 to 1793, Wayne instructed his troops on Native American warfare tactics and instilled discipline which was lacking under St. Clair.[301] In August 1794, Washington sent Wayne into tribal territory with authority to drive them out by burning their villages and crops in the Maumee Valley.[302] On August 24, the American army under Wayne's leadership defeated the western confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, and the Treaty of Greenville in August 1795 opened up two-thirds of the Ohio Country for American settlement.[303] Second term Originally Washington had planned to retire after his first term, while many Americans could not imagine anyone else taking his place.[304] After nearly four years as president, and dealing with the infighting in his own cabinet and with partisan critics, Washington showed little enthusiasm in running for a second term, while Martha also wanted him not to run.[305] James Madison urged him not to retire, that his absence would only allow the dangerous political rift in his cabinet, and in the House, to worsen. Jefferson also pleaded with him not to retire and agreed to drop his attacks on Hamilton, or he would also retire if Washington did.[306] Hamilton maintained that Washington's absence would be "deplored as the greatest evil" to the country at this time.[307] Washington's close nephew George Augustine Washington, his manager at Mount Vernon, was critically ill and had to be replaced, further increasing Washington's desire to retire and return to Mount Vernon.[308] When the election of 1792 neared, Washington did not publicly announce his presidential candidacy but silently consented to run, to prevent a further political-personal rift in his cabinet. The Electoral College unanimously elected him president on February 13, 1793, and John Adams as vice president by a vote of 77 to 50.[297] Washington, with nominal fanfare, arrived alone at his inauguration in his carriage. Sworn into office by Associate Justice William Cushing on March 4, 1793 in the Senate Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia, Washington gave a brief address and then immediately retired to his Philadelphia presidential house, weary of office and in poor health.[309] Painting of the frigate USS Constitution with three masts USS Constitution: Commissioned and named by President Washington in 1794 On April 22, 1793, during the French Revolution, Washington issued his famous Neutrality Proclamation and was resolved to pursue, "a conduct friendly and impartial toward the belligerent Powers" while he warned Americans not to intervene in the international conflict. [310] Although Washington recognized France's revolutionary government, he would eventually ask French minister to America Citizen Genêt be recalled over the Citizen Genêt Affair.[311] Genêt was a diplomatic troublemaker who was openly hostile toward Washington's neutrality policy. He procured four American ships as privateers to strike at Spanish forces (British allies) in Florida while organizing militias to strike at other British possessions. But his efforts failed to draw America into the foreign campaigns during Washington's presidency.[312] On July 31, 1793 Jefferson submitted his resignation from Washington's cabinet.[313] Washington signed the Naval Act of 1794 and commissioned the first six federal frigates to combat Barbary pirates.[314] In January 1795, Hamilton, who desired more income for his family, resigned office and was replaced by Washington appointment Oliver Wolcott, Jr.. Washington and Hamilton remained friends. However, Washington's relationship with his Secretary of War Henry Knox deteriorated. Knox resigned office on the rumor he profited from construction contracts on U.S. Frigates.[315] In the final months of his presidency, Washington was assailed by his political foes and a partisan press who accused him of being ambitious and greedy, while he argued that he had taken no salary during the war and had risked his life in battle. He regarded the press as a disuniting, "diabolical" force of falsehoods, sentiments that he expressed in his Farewell Address.[316] At the end of his second term, Washington retired for personal and political reasons, dismayed with personal attacks, and to ensure that a truly contested presidential election could be held. He did not feel bound to a two-term limit, but his retirement set a significant precedent. Washington is often credited with setting the principle of a two-term presidency, but it was Thomas Jefferson who first refused to run for a third term on political grounds.[317] Farewell Address Main article: George Washington's Farewell Address Newspaper showing Washington's Farewell Address Washington's Farewell Address (September 19, 1796) In 1796, Washington declined to run for a third term of office, believing his death in office would create an image of a lifetime appointment. The precedent of a two-term limit was created by his retirement from office.[318] In May 1792, in anticipation of his retirement, Washington instructed James Madison to prepare a "valedictory address", an initial draft of which was entitled the "Farewell Address".[319] In May 1796, Washington sent the manuscript to his Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton who did an extensive rewrite, while Washington provided final edits.[320] On September 19, 1796, David Claypoole's American Daily Advertiser published the final version of the address.[321] Washington stressed that national identity was paramount, while a united America would safeguard freedom and prosperity. He warned the nation of three eminent dangers: regionalism, partisanship, and foreign entanglements, and said the "name of AMERICAN, which belongs to you, in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriotism, more than any appellation derived from local discriminations."[322] Washington called for men to move beyond partisanship for the common good, stressing that the United States must concentrate on its own interests. He warned against foreign alliances and their influence in domestic affairs and against bitter partisanship and the dangers of political parties.[323] He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but advised against involvement in European wars.[324] He stressed the importance of religion, asserting that "religion and morality are indispensable supports" in a republic.[325] Washington's address favored Hamilton's Federalist ideology and economic policies.[326] Washington closed the address by reflecting on his legacy: Though in reviewing the incidents of my Administration I am unconscious of intentional error, I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects not to think it probable that I may have committed many errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view them with indulgence, and that, after forty-five years of my life dedicated to its service with an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the mansions of rest.[327] After initial publication, many Republicans, including Madison, criticized the Address and believed it was an anti-French campaign document. Madison believed Washington was strongly pro-British. Madison also was suspicious of who authored the Address.[328] In 1839, Washington biographer Jared Sparks maintained that Washington's "... Farewell Address was printed and published with the laws, by order of the legislatures, as an evidence of the value they attached to its political precepts, and of their affection for its author."[329] In 1972, Washington scholar James Flexner referred to the Farewell Address as receiving as much acclaim as Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence and Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.[330] In 2010, historian Ron Chernow reported the Farewell Address proved to be one of the most influential statements on Republicanism.[331] Retirement (1797–1799) Further information: Post-presidency of George Washington Washington retired to Mount Vernon in March 1797 and devoted time to his plantations and other business interests, including his distillery.[332] His plantation operations were only minimally profitable,[38] and his lands in the west (Piedmont) were under Indian attacks and yielded little income, with the squatters there refusing to pay rent. He attempted to sell these but without success.[333] He became an even more committed Federalist. He vocally supported the Alien and Sedition Acts and convinced Federalist John Marshall to run for Congress to weaken the Jeffersonian hold on Virginia.[334] Washington grew restless in retirement, prompted by tensions with France, and he wrote to Secretary of War James McHenry offering to organize President Adams' army.[335] In a continuation of the French Revolutionary Wars, French privateers began seizing American ships in 1798, and relations deteriorated with France and led to the "Quasi-War". Without consulting Washington, Adams nominated him for a lieutenant general commission on July 4, 1798 and the position of commander-in-chief of the armies.[336] Washington chose to accept, replacing James Wilkinson,[337] and he served as the commanding general from July 13, 1798 until his death 17 months later. He participated in planning for a provisional army, but he avoided involvement in details. In advising McHenry of potential officers for the army, he appeared to make a complete break with Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans: "you could as soon scrub the blackamoor white, as to change the principles of a profest Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the government of this country."[338] Washington delegated the active leadership of the army to Hamilton, a major general. No army invaded the United States during this period, and Washington did not assume a field command.[339] Washington was thought to be rich because of the well-known "glorified façade of wealth and grandeur" at Mount Vernon,[340] but nearly all his wealth was in the form of land and slaves rather than ready cash. To supplement his income he erected a distillery for substantial whiskey production.[341] Historians estimate that the estate was worth about $1 million in 1799 dollars,[342] equivalent to $15,065,000 in 2019. He bought land parcels to spur development around the new Federal City that was named in his honor, and he sold individual lots to middle-income investors rather than multiple lots to large investors, believing they would more likely commit to making improvements.[343] Final days and death Washington on his deathbed, with doctors and family surrounding Washington on his Deathbed Junius Brutus Stearns 1799 On December 12, 1799, Washington inspected his farms on horseback in snow and sleet. He returned home late for dinner but refused to change out of his wet clothes, not wanting to keep his guests waiting. He had a sore throat the following day but again went out in freezing, snowy weather to mark trees for cutting. That evening, he complained of chest congestion, but was still cheerful. On Saturday, he awoke to an inflamed throat and difficulty breathing, so he ordered estate overseer George Rawlins to remove nearly a pint of his blood, bloodletting being a common practice of the time. His family summoned Doctors James Craik, Gustavus Richard Brown, and Elisha C. Dick.[344] (Dr. William Thornton arrived some hours after Washington died.)[345] Dr. Brown thought Washington had quinsy; Dr. Dick thought the condition was a more serious "violent inflammation of the throat".[346] They continued the process of bloodletting to approximately five pints, and Washington's condition deteriorated further. Dr. Dick proposed a tracheotomy, but the others were not familiar with that procedure and therefore disapproved.[347] Washington instructed Brown and Dick to leave the room, while he assured Craik, "Doctor, I die hard, but I am not afraid to go."[348] Washington's death came more swiftly than expected.[349] On his deathbed, he instructed his private secretary Tobias Lear to wait three days before his burial, out of fear of being entombed alive.[350] According to Lear, he died peacefully between 10 and 11 p.m. on December 14, 1799, with Martha seated at the foot of his bed. His last words were "'Tis well", from his conversation with Lear about his burial. He was 67.[351] Miniature of George Washington by Robert Field (1800) Congress immediately adjourned for the day upon news of Washington's death, and the Speaker's chair was shrouded in black the next morning.[352] The funeral was held four days after his death on December 18, 1799, at Mount Vernon, where his body was interred. Cavalry and foot soldiers led the procession, and six colonels served as the pallbearers. The Mount Vernon funeral service was restricted mostly to family and friends.[353] Reverend Thomas Davis read the funeral service by the vault with a brief address, followed by a ceremony performed by various members of Washington's Masonic lodge in Alexandria, Virginia.[354] Congress chose Light-Horse Harry Lee to deliver the eulogy. Word of his death traveled slowly; church bells rang in the cities, and many places of business closed.[355] People worldwide admired Washington and were saddened by his death, and memorial processions were held in major cities of the United States. Martha wore a black mourning cape for one year, and she burned their correspondence to protect their privacy. Only five letters between the couple are known to have survived: two from Martha to George and three from him to her.[356] The diagnosis of Washington's illness and the immediate cause of his death have been subjects of debate since the day he died. The published account of Drs. Craik and Brown[p] stated that his symptoms had been consistent with cynanche trachealis (tracheal inflammation), a term of that period used to describe severe inflammation of the upper windpipe, including quinsy. Accusations have persisted since Washington's death concerning medical malpractice, with some believing he had been bled to death.[347] Various modern medical authors have speculated that he died from a severe case of epiglottitis complicated by the given treatments, most notably the massive blood loss which almost certainly caused hypovolemic shock.[358][q] Burial, net worth, and aftermath A picture of the two sarcophagi of George (at right) and Martha Washington at the present tomb at Mount Vernon. The sarcophagi of George (right) and Martha Washington at the present tomb's entrance Washington was buried in the old Washington family vault at Mount Vernon, situated on a grassy slope overspread with willow, juniper, cypress, and chestnut trees. It contained the remains of his brother Lawrence and other family members, but the decrepit brick vault was in need of repair, prompting Washington to leave instructions in his will for the construction of a new vault.[355] Washington's estate at the time of his death was worth an estimated $780,000 in 1799, approximately equivalent to $14.3 million in 2010.[362] Washington's peak net worth was $587.0 million, including his 300 slaves.[363] In 1830, a disgruntled ex-employee of the estate attempted to steal what he thought was Washington's skull, prompting the construction of a more secure vault.[364] The next year, the new vault was constructed at Mount Vernon to receive the remains of George and Martha and other relatives.[365] In 1832, a joint Congressional committee debated moving his body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in the Capitol. The crypt had been built by architect Charles Bulfinch in the 1820s during the reconstruction of the burned-out capital, after the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812. Southern opposition was intense, antagonized by an ever-growing rift between North and South; many were concerned that Washington's remains could end up on "a shore foreign to his native soil" if the country became divided, and Washington's remains stayed in Mount Vernon.[366] On October 7, 1837, Washington's remains were placed, still in the original lead coffin, within a marble sarcophagus designed by William Strickland and constructed by John Struthers earlier that year.[367] The sarcophagus was sealed and encased with planks, and an outer vault was constructed around it.[368] The outer vault has the sarcophagi of both George and Martha Washington; the inner vault has the remains of other Washington family members and relatives.[365] Personal life The Washington Family by Edward Savage (c. 1789–1796) portrays George and Martha Washington with Martha's grandchildren. National Art Gallery[369] Washington was somewhat reserved in personality, but he generally had a strong presence among others. He made speeches and announcements when required, but he was not a noted orator or debater.[370] He was taller than most of his contemporaries;[371] accounts of his height vary from 6 ft (1.83 m) to 6 ft 3.5 in (1.92 m) tall, he weighed between 210–220 pounds (95–100 kg) as an adult,[372] and he was known for his great strength.[373] He had grey-blue eyes and reddish-brown hair which he wore powdered in the fashion of the day.[374] He had a rugged and dominating presence, which garnered respect from his male peers. Washington suffered frequently from severe tooth decay and ultimately lost all his teeth but one. He had several sets of false teeth made which he wore during his presidency—none of which were made of wood, contrary to common lore. These dental problems left him in constant pain, for which he took laudanum.[375] As a public figure, he relied upon the strict confidence of his dentist.[376] Washington was a talented equestrian early in life. He collected thoroughbreds at Mount Vernon, and his two favorite horses were Blueskin and Nelson.[377] Fellow Virginian Thomas Jefferson said Washington was "the best horseman of his age and the most graceful figure that could be seen on horseback";[378] he also hunted foxes, deer, ducks, and other game.[379] He was an excellent dancer and attended the theater frequently. He drank in moderation but was morally opposed to excessive drinking, smoking tobacco, gambling, and profanity.[380] Religion and Freemasonry Main articles: Religious views of George Washington and American Enlightenment Washington was descended from Anglican minister Lawrence Washington (his great-great-grandfather), whose troubles with the Church of England may have prompted his heirs to emigrate to America.[381] Washington was baptized as an infant in April 1732 and became a devoted member of the Church of England (the Anglican Church).[382] He served more than 20 years as a vestryman and churchwarden for Fairfax Parish and Truro Parish, Virginia.[383] He privately prayed and read the Bible daily, and he publicly encouraged people and the nation to pray.[384] He may have taken communion on a regular basis prior to the Revolutionary War, but he did not do so following the war, for which he was admonished by Pastor James Abercrombie.[385] Washington is shown presiding as Master Mason over a lodge meeting. George Washington as Master of his Lodge, 1793 Washington believed in a "wise, inscrutable, and irresistible" Creator God who was active in the Universe, contrary to deistic thought.[381] He referred to God by the Enlightenment terms Providence, the Creator, or the Almighty, and also as the Divine Author or the Supreme Being.[386] He believed in a divine power who watched over battlefields, was involved in the outcome of war, was protecting his life, and was involved in American politics—and specifically in the creation of the United States.[387][r] Modern historian Ron Chernow has posited that Washington avoided evangelistic Christianity or hellfire-and-brimstone speech along with communion and anything inclined to "flaunt his religiosity". Chernow has also said Washington "never used his religion as a device for partisan purposes or in official undertakings".[389] No mention of Jesus Christ appears in his private correspondence, and such references are rare in his public writings.[390] He frequently quoted from the Bible or paraphrased it, and often referred to the Anglican Book of Common Prayer.[391] There is debate on whether he is best classed as a Christian or a theistic rationalist—or both.[392] Washington emphasized religious toleration in a nation with numerous denominations and religions. He publicly attended services of different Christian denominations and prohibited anti-Catholic celebrations in the Army.[393] He engaged workers at Mount Vernon without regard for religious belief or affiliation. While president, he acknowledged major religious sects and gave speeches on religious toleration.[394] He was distinctly rooted in the ideas, values, and modes of thinking of the Enlightenment,[395] but he harbored no contempt of organized Christianity and its clergy, "being no bigot myself to any mode of worship".[395] In 1793, speaking to members of the New Church in Baltimore, Washington proclaimed, "We have abundant reason to rejoice that in this Land the light of truth and reason has triumphed over the power of bigotry and superstition."[396] Freemasonry was a widely accepted institution in the late 18th century, known for advocating moral teachings.[397] Washington was attracted to the Masons' dedication to the Enlightenment principles of rationality, reason, and brotherhood. The American Masonic lodges did not share the anti-clerical perspective of the controversial European lodges.[398] A Masonic lodge was established in Fredericksburg in September 1752, and Washington was initiated two months later at the age of 20 as one of its first Entered Apprentices. Within a year, he progressed through its ranks to become a Master Mason.[399] Washington had a high regard for the Masonic Order, but his personal lodge attendance was sporadic. In 1777, a convention of Virginia lodges asked him to be the Grand Master of the newly established Grand Lodge of Virginia, but he declined due to his commitments leading the Continental Army. After 1782, he corresponded frequently with Masonic lodges and members,[400] and he was listed as Master in the Virginia charter of Alexandria Lodge No. 22 in 1788.[401] Slavery Main articles: George Washington and slavery, Slavery in the colonial United States, and Slavery in the United States Washington the farmer is shown standing on his plantation talking to an overseer as children play and slaves work. Work is by Junius Stearns. Washington as Farmer at Mount Vernon Junius Brutus Stearns, 1851 In Washington's lifetime, slavery was deeply ingrained in the economic and social fabric of Virginia.[402] Washington owned and worked African slaves his entire adult life.[403] He acquired them through inheritance, gained control of eighty-four dower slaves on his marriage to Martha and purchased at least seventy-one slaves between 1752 and 1773.[404] His early views on slavery were no different from any Virginia planter of the time.[405] He demonstrated no moral qualms about the institution and referred to his slaves as "a Species of Property".[406] From the 1760s his attitudes underwent a slow evolution. The first doubts were prompted by his transition from tobacco to grain crops which left him with a costly surplus of slaves, causing him to question the economic efficiency of the system.[407] His growing disillusionment with the institution was spurred by the principles of the American Revolution and revolutionary friends such as Lafayette and Hamilton.[408] Most historians agree the Revolution was central to the evolution of Washington's attitudes on slavery;[409] "After 1783", Kenneth Morgan writes, "...[Washington] began to express inner tensions about the problem of slavery more frequently, though always in private..."[410] The many contemporary reports of slave treatment at Mount Vernon are varied and conflicting.[411] Historian Kenneth Morgan (2000) maintains that Washington was frugal on spending for clothes and bedding for his slaves, and only provided them with just enough food, and that he maintained strict control over his slaves, instructing his overseers to keep them working hard from dawn to dusk year round. [412] However, historian Dorothy Twohig (2001) said: "Food, clothing, and housing seem to have been at least adequate".[413] Washington faced growing debts involved with the costs of supporting slaves. He held an "ingrained sense of racial superiority" over African Americans, but harbored no ill feelings toward them.[414] Some slave families worked at different locations on the plantation but were allowed to visit one another on their days off.[415] Washington's slaves received two hours off for meals during the workday, and given time off on Sundays and religious holidays.[416] Washington frequently cared for ill or injured slaves personally, and he provided physicians and midwives and had his slaves inoculated for smallpox.[417][failed verification – see discussion] In May 1796, Martha's personal and favorite slave Ona Judge escaped to Portsmouth. At Martha's behest Washington attempted to capture Ona, using a Treasury agent, but this effort failed. In February 1797, Washington's personal slave Hercules escaped to Philadelphia and was never found.[418] Some accounts report that Washington opposed flogging, but at times sanctioned its use, generally as a last resort, on both male and female slaves.[419] Washington used both reward and punishment to encourage discipline and productivity in his slaves. He tried appealing to an individual's sense of pride, gave better blankets and clothing to the "most deserving", and motivated his slaves with cash rewards. He believed "watchfulness and admonition" to be often better deterrents against transgressions, but would punish those who "will not do their duty by fair means". Punishment ranged in severity from demotion back to fieldwork, through whipping and beatings, to permanent separation from friends and family by sale. Historian Ron Chernow maintains that overseers were required to warn slaves before resorting to the lash and required Washington's written permission before whipping, though his extended absences did not always permit this.[420] Washington remained dependent on slave labor to work his farms and negotiated the purchase of more slaves in 1786 and 1787.[421] In February 1786, Washington took a census of Mount Vernon and recorded 224 slaves.[422] By 1799, slaves at Mount Vernon totaled 317, including 143 children.[423] Washington owned 124 slaves, leased 40, and held 153 for his wife's dower interest.[424] Washington supported many slaves who were too young or too old to work, greatly increasing Mount Vernon's slave population and causing the plantation to operate at a loss.[425] Abolition and emancipation Main articles: George Washington and slavery and Abolitionism in the United States Based on his letters, diary, documents, accounts from colleagues, employees, friends and visitors, Washington slowly developed a cautious sympathy toward abolitionism that eventually ended with the emancipation of his own slaves.[426] As president, he kept publicly silent on slavery, believing it was a nationally divisive issue that could destroy the union.[427] In a 1778 letter to Lund Washington, he made clear his desire "to get quit of Negroes" when discussing the exchange of slaves for land he wanted to buy.[428] The next year, he stated his intention not to separate families as a result of "a change of masters".[429] During the 1780s Washington privately expressed his support for gradual emancipation of slaves.[430] Between 1783 and 1786 he gave moral support to a plan proposed by Lafayette to purchase land and free slaves to work on it, but declined to participate in the experiment.[413] Washington privately expressed support for emancipation to prominent Methodists Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury in 1785, but declined to sign their petition.[431] In personal correspondence the next year, he made clear his desire to see the institution of slavery ended by a gradual legislative process, a view that correlated with the mainstream antislavery literature published in the 1780s that Washington possessed.[432] He significantly reduced his purchases of slaves after the war, but continued to acquire them in small numbers.[433] In 1794, Washington privately expressed to Tobias Lear, his secretary, that he found slavery to be repugnant. In 1788, Washington declined a suggestion from a leading French abolitionist, Jacques Brissot, to establish an abolitionist society in Virginia, stating that although he supported the idea, the time was not yet right to confront the issue.[434] The historian Henry Wiencek (2003) believes, based on a remark that appears in the notebook of his biographer David Humphreys, that Washington considered making a public statement by freeing his slaves on the eve of his presidency in 1789.[435] The historian Philip D. Morgan (2005) disagrees, believing the remark was a "private expression of remorse" at his inability to free his slaves.[436] Other historians agree with Morgan that Washington was determined not to risk national unity over an issue as divisive as slavery.[437] Washington never responded to any of the antislavery petitions he received, and the subject was not mentioned in either his last address to Congress or his Farewell Address.[438] The first clear indication that Washington was seriously intending to free his own slaves appears in a letter written to his secretary, Tobias Lear, in 1794.[439] Washington instructed Lear to find buyers for his land in western Virginia, explaining in a private coda that he was doing so "to liberate a certain species of property which I possess, very repugnantly to my own feelings".[440] The plan, along with others Washington considered in 1795 and 1796, could not be realized because of his failure to find buyers for his land, his reluctance to break up slave families and the refusal of the Custis heirs to help prevent such separations by freeing their dower slaves at the same time.[441] On July 9, 1799, Washington finished making his last will; the longest provision concerned slavery. All his slaves were to be freed after the death of his wife Martha. Washington said he did not free them immediately because his slaves intermarried with his wife's dower slaves. He forbade their sale or transportation out of Virginia. His will provided that old and young freed people be taken care of indefinitely; younger ones were to be taught to read and write and placed in suitable occupations.[442] Washington freed more than 160 slaves, including 25 he had acquired from his wife's brother in payment of a debt freed by graduation.[443] He was among the few large slave-holding Virginians during the Revolutionary Era who emancipated their slaves.[444] On January 1, 1801, one year after George Washington's death, Martha Washington signed an order freeing his slaves. Many of them, having never strayed far from Mount Vernon, were naturally reluctant to try their luck elsewhere; others refused to abandon spouses or children still held as dower slaves (the Custis estate)[445] and also stayed with or near Martha. Following George Washington's instructions in his will, funds were used to feed and clothe the young, aged, and sickly slaves until the early 1830s.[446] Historical reputation and legacy Further information: Legacy of George Washington, Cultural depictions of George Washington, and Historical rankings of presidents of the United States portrait of Washington seated facing left by Gilbert Stuart Washington, the Constable by Gilbert Stuart (1797) Washington's legacy endures as one of the most influential in American history, since he served as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, a hero of the Revolution, and the first president of the United States. Various historians maintain that he also was a dominant factor in America's founding, the Revolutionary War, and the Constitutional Convention.[447] Revolutionary War comrade Light-Horse Harry Lee eulogized him as "First in war—first in peace—and first in the hearts of his countrymen".[448] Lee's words became the hallmark by which Washington's reputation was impressed upon the American memory, with some biographers regarding him as the great exemplar of republicanism. He set many precedents for the national government and the presidency in particular, and he was called the "Father of His Country" as early as 1778.[449][s] In 1885, Congress proclaimed Washington's birthday to be a federal holiday.[451] Twentieth-century biographer Douglas Southall Freeman concluded, "The great big thing stamped across that man is character." Modern historian David Hackett Fischer has expanded upon Freeman's assessment, defining Washington's character as "integrity, self-discipline, courage, absolute honesty, resolve, and decision, but also forbearance, decency, and respect for others".[452] A drawing from a Japanese manuscript of Washington fighting a tiger. Washington became an international symbol for liberation and nationalism, as the leader of the first successful revolution against a colonial empire. The Federalists made him the symbol of their party, but the Jeffersonians continued to distrust his influence for many years and delayed building the Washington Monument.[453] Washington was elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences on January 31, 1781, before he had even begun his presidency.[454] He was posthumously appointed to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States during the United States Bicentennial to ensure he would never be outranked; this was accomplished by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479 passed on January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1976.[455][t] Parson Weems wrote a hagiographic biography in 1809 to honor Washington.[458] Historian Ron Chernow maintains that Weems attempted to humanize Washington, making him look less stern, and to inspire "patriotism and morality" and to foster "enduring myths", such as Washington's refusal to lie about damaging his father's cherry tree.[459] Weems' accounts have never been proven or disproven.[460] Historian John Ferling, however, maintains that Washington remains the only founder and president ever to be referred to as "godlike", and points out that his character has been the most scrutinized by historians, past and present.[461] Historian Gordon S. Wood concludes that "the greatest act of his life, the one that gave him his greatest fame, was his resignation as commander-in-chief of the American forces."[462] Chernow suggests that Washington was "burdened by public life" and divided by "unacknowledged ambition mingled with self-doubt".[463] A 1993 review of presidential polls and surveys consistently ranked Washington number 4, 3, or 2 among presidents.[464] A 2018 Siena College Research Institute survey ranked him number 1 among presidents.[465] Memorials A dusk picture of the Washington Monument obelisk with flags around the base, in Washington, D.C. Washington Monument, Washington, D.C. Further information: The Washington Papers, List of memorials to George Washington, and Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps Jared Sparks began collecting and publishing Washington's documentary record in the 1830s in Life and Writings of George Washington (12 vols., 1834–1837).[466] The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745–1799 (1931–1944) is a 39-volume set edited by John Clement Fitzpatrick, who was commissioned by the George Washington Bicentennial Commission. It contains more than 17,000 letters and documents and is available online from the University of Virginia.[467] Universities Statue of Washington at Washington University in St. Louis Numerous universities, including George Washington University and Washington University in St. Louis, were named in honor of Washington.[468][469] Places and monuments Many places and monuments have been named in honor of Washington, most notably the nation's capital Washington, D.C. The state of Washington is the only state to be named after a president.[470] Currency and postage Further information: Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps George Washington appears on contemporary U.S. currency, including the one-dollar bill and the quarter-dollar coin (the Washington quarter). Washington and Benjamin Franklin appeared on the nation's first postage stamps in 1847. Washington has since appeared on many postage issues, more than any other person.[471]

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